{"articleList":{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["state",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["isLoading",false]]}],["edges",null],["firstCursor",null],["lastCursor",null],["totalCount",null],["authFields",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[]}],["stats",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["repliedCount",0],["notRepliedCount",0]]}]]},"replyList":{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["state",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["isLoading",true]]}],["edges",null],["firstCursor",null],["lastCursor",null],["totalCount",null]]},"articleDetail":{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["state",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["isLoading",false],["isAuthLoading",false],["isReplyLoading",false]]}],["data",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["article",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",1],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",1],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_v5PWALJs0xWubFvv4DpDgDqRg2Hcwj8ACSvLjfukdQA"],["name","愛恨分明的中壢黛博拉"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","Air Jordan Giveaway"],["url","https://t.co/XUi59qdhVg"],["summary","Select Giveaway(6)\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tAIR JORDAN XIII/XIV DMP\n\t\t\t\t\t\tMen's Basketball\n\t\t\t\t\t\t$500 Free\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tAir Jordan 5 Retro Premium\n\t\t\t\t\t\tMen's Shoe\n\t\t\t\t\t\t$400 Free\n\t\t \t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tAir Jordan 4 Retro\n\t\t\t\t\t\tMen's Shoe\n\t\t\t\t\t\t$190 Free\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tAir Jordan 5 Retro\n\t\t\t\t\t\tMen's Shoe\n\t\t\t\t\t\t$190 Free\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tJordan Spizike\n\t\t\t\t\t\tMen's Shoe\n\t\t\t\t\t\t$175 Free\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tAir Jordan 11 Retro Low\n\t\t\t\t\t\tMen's Shoe\n\t\t\t\t\t\t$175 Free"],["topImageUrl","http://i.imgur.com/vL9h2Sg.png"],["error",null]]}]}],["text","*Gifts For 小呈與阿泰 My Lovely Subscribers* https://t.co/XUi59qdhVg"],["replyRequests",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","1uo6maxs0ultt__j4S8C_v5PWALJs0xWubFvv4DpDgDqRg2Hcwj8ACSvLjfukdQA__RUMORS_LINE_BOT"],["reason",null],["positiveFeedbackCount",0],["negativeFeedbackCount",0]]}]}],["id","1uo6maxs0ultt"],["createdAt","2018-04-30T13:36:23.166Z"]]}],["replyConnections",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["canUpdateStatus",false],["status","NORMAL"],["articleId","1uo6maxs0ultt"],["replyId","XB5YGmMBSH_MLFhIlV7s"],["reply",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","XB5YGmMBSH_MLFhIlV7s"],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","AVriAlOoyrDaTqlmmqhC"],["name","Lin"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",22]]}],["type","NOT_ARTICLE"],["text","這是商業活動廣告 "],["reference",""],["hyperlinks",null]]}],["feedbacks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[]}],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","AVriAlOoyrDaTqlmmqhC"],["name","Lin"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",22]]}],["createdAt","2018-05-01T06:16:43.250Z"]]}]}],["relatedArticles",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",1],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",1],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_Q1f0p6vbv2CPiPHbzpxIjPaZLsd2LGzP7V3cIFpGw1A"],["name","好沉思的龍崎佩格"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","StockX: Sneakers, Streetwear, Trading Cards, Handbags, Watches"],["url","https://reurl.cc/DAkMKj"],["summary","SneakersShoesApparelElectronicsTrading CardsCollectiblesAccessoriesRecommended For YouThese products are inspired by your previous browsing history.Nike Dunk Low Cacao Wow (Women's)Lowest Ask$130Last Sale:$147Nike Dunk Low Retro White Black Panda (2021) (Women's)Lowest Ask$127Last Sale:$140Jordan 3 Retro PalominoLowest Ask$173Last Sale:$181adidas Yeezy Slide Bone (2022/2023 Restock)Lowest Ask$128Last Sale:$169Jordan 1 Retro Low OG Black Toe (2023)Lowest Ask$150Last Sale:$148Nike Dunk Low Retro White Black Panda (2021) (GS)Lowest Ask$113Last Sale:$126Popular BrandsTrending Sneakers'Trending' products are a curated collection of our best selling itemsSee AllTrending SneakersJordan 1 Retro Low OG Black Toe (2023)Lowest Ask$1502490 soldJordan 1 Retro High OG UNC ToeLowest Ask$20212430 soldadidas Yeezy Slide Bone (2022/2023 Restock)Lowest Ask$12875392 soldJordan 3 Retro PalominoLowest Ask$1733193 soldadidas Yeezy 450 Slide CreamLowest Ask$151367 soldJordan 4 Retro Red CementLowest Ask$264672 soldPopular Footwear BrandsFeatured Apparel'Featured' products are a curated collection of our best selling itemsSee AllFeatured ApparelFear of God Essentials Hoodie BlackLowest Ask$981269 soldNike x NOCTA Tech Fleece Hoodie BlackLowest Ask$171367 soldSp5der Acai Hoodie PurpleLowest Ask$199586 soldNike x Stussy The Wide World Tribe T-Shirt WhiteLowest Ask$732276 soldTravis Scott x Jordan Flight Graphic Hoodie Archaeo BrownLowest Ask$148705 soldKith x Marvel X-Men Wolverine Tee Black PHLowest Ask$104124 soldFeatured Accessories'Featured' products are a curated collection of our best selling itemsSee AllFeatured AccessoriesCasio Analog MTP1302D-2A2VLowest Ask$84Last Sale:$84Trapstar Irongate T Crossbody Bag BlackLowest Ask$134Last Sale:$135Telfar x Melissa Small Jelly Shopper ClearLowest Ask$222Last Sale:$200Travis Scott Cactus Jack Backpack With Patch Set BrownLowest Ask$275Last Sale:$265OFF-WHITE Virgil Square Frame Sunglasses Black White Grey (FW21)Lowest Ask$349Last Sale:$323Louis Vuitton Mini Bumbag MonogramLowest Ask$2,412Last Sale:$2,412Electronics Spotlight'Spotlight' products are a curated collection of our best selling itemsSee AllElectronics SpotlightApple Airpods Pro (2nd Gen/2022) MQD83AM/A WhiteLowest Ask$2052900 soldFlipper Zero Portable Multitool WhiteLowest Ask$1543857 soldMicrosoft Xbox Series X (US Plug) RRT-00001 / RRT-00024 BlackLowest Ask$4132742 soldSony PS5 PlayStation 5 (US Plug) Digital Edition Console 3005719 WhiteLowest Ask$41812444 soldApple AirPods Max Headphones SilverLowest Ask$417386 soldSony Playstation PS5 DualSense Wireless Controller LeBron James EditionLowest Ask$10124 soldSeasonal FavoritesCollectibles Staff Picks'Staff Picks' is a curated collection of our best selling itemsSee AllCollectibles Staff PicksTravis Scott Cactus Jack Fortnite 12\" Action Figure Duo SetLowest Ask$73646 soldMattel Monster High Skullector Chucky and Tiffany Doll (2-Pack)Lowest Ask$91459 soldPhaidon Titles Ruin Everthing A Stream of Consciousness by Aubrey Graham and Kenza Samir BookLowest Ask$6950 soldLEGO Technic Bugatti Chiron Set 42083Lowest Ask$306420 soldTravis Scott Commercial Skateboard DeckLowest Ask$77225 soldTravis Scott x McDonalds Chicken Nugget Body PillowLowest Ask$260171 soldFeatured Trading Cards'Featured' products are a curated collection of our best selling itemsSee AllFeatured Trading CardsBandai One Piece Card Game Romance Dawn Booster Box (OP-01) (English)Lowest Ask$143274 soldPokémon TCG Scarlet & Violet 151 Enhanced Expansion Pack (Japanese)Lowest Ask$16271 soldPokemon TCG Sword & Shield Charizard Ultra-Premium Collection Box 4x LotLowest Ask$3391563 soldPokémon TCG Sword & Shield Shining Fates Elite Trainer Box 4X LotLowest Ask$168454 sold2023 Topps Chrome Star Wars Return of the Jedi 40th Anniversary Sapphire Edition BoxLowest Ask$16817 soldPokémon TCG Scarlet & Violet Expansion Pack Ruler of the Black Flame Booster Box (Japanese) 2x LotLowest Ask$18123 soldBrowse More BrandsHot BearbricksSee AllHot BearbricksBearbrick Series 46 Sealed Case 100% (24 Blind Boxes)Lowest Ask$120151 soldBearbrick Garfield 100% & 400% Set Gold Chrome Ver.Lowest Ask$109720 soldBearbrick Project Mercury Astronaut 100% & 400% SetLowest Ask$88642 soldBearbrick Series 44 Sealed Case 100% (24 Blind Boxes)Lowest Ask$1272328 soldBearbrick Series 45 Sealed Case 100% (24 Blind Boxes)Lowest Ask$1221327 soldBearbrick Batman Hush Ver. 100% & 400% SetLowest Ask$135429 soldRelease CalendarSee AllRelease CalendarAug6Nintendo GameCube (JP Version) ControllerAskBidAug7adidas Yeezy Foam RNR CarbonAskBidAug7adidas Samba Golf Kith White TintAskBidAug7adidas Samba Golf Kith WhiteAskBidAug7adidas Yeezy 500 Bone White (2023)AskBidAug8Nike Cortez SNKRS Day Korea (2023)AskBid From The MagazineView All News ArticlesEssential Bags You Need for School • 08/03/2023Her Favorites Under $200 • 07/31/2023Top 5 Slides & Slip-Ons • 07/27/2023Essential Kicks Under $200 • 07/24/2023View All News Articles"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]}]}],["text","遠通電收：您的一筆通行費\n58元，將於112年8月7日\n到期，避免產生每筆300元\n罰單，請盡速用手機下載\n遠通電收App線上繳費\nhttps://reurl.cc/DAkMKj"],["id","2sb9vij9kklkf"],["createdAt","2023-08-07T01:01:24.820Z"]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",1],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",1],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_ABOZ7Vs23G5pYHd6fTzpcnukoeBP6_BMxqpUamKckCw"],["name","生氣勃勃的六龜梅根"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[]}],["text","Dear Sir/Madam,\n I am a good friend of a military doctor currently serving in {South Sudan}.\n I am writing today on behalf of my lovely friend {kevin chen} to apply for an emergency release order (substitution) for him, because I am well aware of some procedures in the diplomatic service of the United Nations, and some situations require him to be in the country where I live (Taiwan). Therefore, his attention is urgently needed to solve the problem immediately. Like I said, I was previously told about some of the process involved in getting an emergency release order for my lovely friend through the UN. Therefore, I kindly ask you to reply to my email as soon as possible and attach all necessary procedures. I hope my email is well understood and I will get a reply as soon as possible.\n sincerely yours."],["id","205tidxi831o2"],["createdAt","2023-04-15T21:28:20.814Z"]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",1],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",1],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_0stnDhD-z7h79CRTymtBXh9PTnjfvzzUCEtOpundi_8"],["name","深沉的烏日穆琳"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[]}],["text"," OK, a little to the left. I want to get dad's store.\n Sorry, 29 years old.\n Still chasing Pokemon. My bad.\n Yeah, you're bad.\n Come on, come on, come on, come on, come on.\n Thank you.\n I'm sorry to bother you. Can I see your receipt, please?\n Of course. Oh, thank you.\n Ooh, an espresso machine, huh?\n It's a beauty. Oh, it's lovely.\n All right, well, you have a great day.\n Thank you.\n All right, this was a birthday gift from my husband.\n It's a beautiful machine, but I think it's a little extravagant for our budget.\n No problem. Do you have your receipt?\n Yes, I do.\n Oh, I'm so sorry!\n I know I'm such an idiot.\n Let me just take it off.\n I'm gonna get some more towels.\n You're only making it worse.\n All right, I'll be right back. We'll have towels.\n That's not gonna work on this shade.\n How long is that flight?\n Okay, yeah, let's go ahead and book those three coach tickets.\n Yes, the number is\n 4-0-1-2, 7-4-9-6,\n 2-3-9-0, 5-1-8-5.\n Oh, the zip code is\n 1-7-9-0-2.\n Perfect. Yeah.\n Thank you very much.\n Hey, how much is it to upgrade?\n Yeah, let's go ahead and make it three first-class tickets.\n There we go. Almost good as new.\n Incredible. Thank you. Yeah, no problem.\n Here we go.\n I have a big meeting. Oh, good. We'll have a great one.\n Thank you.\n Sorry, yeah, so close.\n No worries, I think you saved it."],["id","8s-VNIoBrkRFoI6rHMKx"],["createdAt","2023-08-27T01:21:42.062Z"]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",2],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",4],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_XFzhu-AtMK5wl7uFcWD-1hr3RNc3RwsUmJdC_nBOclI"],["name","熱情的✿金湖✿納特™"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[]}],["text","重溫愛因斯坦大師寫給\n以色列第一任總統哈依姆·威茲曼的信:\n我最大的悲傷是看到\n猶太復國主義者對巴勒斯坦的阿拉伯人\n所做的事和納粹對猶太人所做的事一樣...\n信中還說:\n如果我們無法找到與阿拉伯人\n正當合作、真誠對話的途徑,\n那麼我們就沒有從過去兩千年的痛苦中\n學到任何東西,\n而我們所經歷的一切痛苦也是咎由自\n取。\nIt would be my,greatest\nsadness\nto see Zionists Jews) do to\nPalestinian\nArabs much of what\nNazis did to Jews.\nAlbert Einste"],["id","I_VnLosBAjOeMOklCiAY"],["createdAt","2023-10-14T13:36:26.644Z"]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",1],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",1],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_0mTDUZwl3BVkz8sQLrTnYLE8IN19iVQXskep5e3ugiY"],["name","尊敬的✖杉林✖嬌拉汀"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","地震預測 - 維基百科，自由的百科全書"],["url","https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/地震預測"],["summary","本條目介紹的是地震發生前的預測。關於地震發生後發布警報的系統，請見「地震預警系統」。\n\n合併本條目存在以下問題，請協助改善本條目或在討論頁針對議題發表看法。\n\n\n\n本條目需要精通或熟悉相關主題的編者參與及協助編輯。（2018年2月20日）請邀請適合的人士改善本條目。更多的細節與詳情請參見討論頁。 \n\n\n舊金山灣區震災危害度圖表，描繪了2032年前發生大地震的機率。\n地震預測（earthquake prediction）是預測一次地震發生的時間、地點和規模。地震學家目前仍無法預測地震的確切發生時間[1]，然而對地下構造瞭解的進步，科學家能透過震災危害度評估，提供特定規模的地震在未來數年到數十年之間，發生在某區域的機率，以供建築物和公共建設設定最低防震規範。雖然部份證據表明，對某些區域的地震預報或許有實用價值，然而這些技術的可靠性既未確立，也無法重製，所以地震學家及地質學家一般認為實用的地震預測還是夢想。\n\n\n\n爭議[編輯]\n人們試圖以各種自然現象預測地震，例如電磁場、天氣狀況、地震雲、土壤或地下水的氡氣或氫氣含量、井水水位及動物行為等。\n地震預測迄今仍深具爭議性；一方面是因為資料不足，另一方面則缺乏能證實上述因果聯繫的科學理論。此外，只要做出大量預測，便容易碰巧言中。大部分的預測方法都基於機率模型；由於大地震鮮少發生，其地點與時間又相當集中，目前我們很難鑑定一次「成功」的預測是否只是僥倖而已。\n2009年拉奎拉地震發生後，幾位科學家因未能提出足夠警告，依過失殺人罪被判6年徒刑，在歐美科學界引發一片驚慌和撻伐之聲，學者警告這恐造成寒蟬效應。[2] 厄爾斯特大學（University of Ulster）地震物理學教授史迪西（Sandy Steacy）認為：「若維持原判，這項判決將對義大利和全歐洲的地震科學造成寒蟬效應。」科學工作者關懷聯盟（UCS）學者郝普恩（Michael Halpern）認為：「這項決定荒謬又危險，美國官員應該非難它，義大利總統喬治奧·納波利塔諾（Giorgio Napolitano）應該推翻這個決定。」英國地質調查所（BGS）的穆森（Roger Musson）說：「這6名科學家說的是正確的，任何地震學家都會支持他們的說法。他們盡力提供科學的建議卻被判刑，這是錯的。」\n\n預測方法[編輯]\n電磁波異常[編輯]\n實驗證明，岩石在破裂之前，會釋放出電磁波，然而對於如何影響到大的範圍仍有許多疑問；部份研究則認為是岩石內的石英受到壓力時產生的壓電效應所造成；也有人認為是由於地下水位的改變所引起。\n[3]\n\nDemeter微型衛星[編輯]\nDemeter（希臘神話的女神得墨忒耳）為地震區電磁放射偵測（英文：\"Detection of Electro-Magnetic Emissions Transmitted from Earthquake Regions\"）的縮寫。Demeter衛星由法國國家太空研究中心建造，目前已觀察到某類低頻電磁活動與地震活躍帶的關係，並在2004年9月5日日本東海地方發生芮氏規模7.1地震前一週觀察到明顯的電離層活動及溫度變化[4]。\n\nVAN方法[編輯]\nVAN 是一套由 Varotsos、Alexopoulos 與 Nomicos 三位希臘學者在1980年代提出的地震預測法。此法以埋入地下的金屬棍偵測地震電磁信號（英文：seismic electric signals），部份學者聲稱能預測大於五級的地震，震央誤差在100公里以內、震度誤差在0.7個單位內、時間窗口為2小時至11天。這個方法受到 Sir James Lighthill 的批判性考察[5]，此外也在日本激起一些科學上的興趣[6]。\n\n水氡異常[編輯]\n指地下水中氡氣含量的突然大幅度增加或減少。在多次大地震前已觀測到這種現象，其原因可能是地應力的變化使岩石釋放出一定量的氡氣，從而導致地下水中氡氣含量的變化。\n\n地震活動型態的改變[編輯]\n前震[編輯]\n\n發生在相近時間或空間上的一連串地震，依照發生次序可分為前震、主震和餘震，難以判別主震的地震序列稱之為群震。不同型態的地震序列是由於地殼非均質所引起許多大地震在來臨前，斷層破裂區域的地震活動會明顯的增加，最著名的案例為1975年的海城地震。\n\n動物行為[編輯]\n根據民間傳說，一些動物能預知地震來臨，特別是貓、狗、雞、馬及其他小型動物；大型動物對此則較不敏感。日本學者也曾對鯰魚的行為進行長期研究。\n也有人主張動物的異常行為源於低頻電磁輻射信號。科羅拉多大學的學者證實石英岩斷裂時能藉壓電效應產生電磁活動。這類活動可於震前在斷層線上發生。根據最近的研究，電磁感應器能在統計學的意義上有效預測地震[7]\n中國曾有系統地研究了動物的異常表現，並在1974年12月預測隔年二月發生的海城地震；然而該次預測主要是依靠一系列的強烈前震。關於動物行為的報導通常模稜兩可；目前還無法證明動物能預知地震，即使動物能感知P波，但地震儀對此更敏感[8]。\n\n案例[編輯]\n中國[編輯]\n中國地震預測主要是基於震前的異常事件，例如地下水位、動物行為或前震等等。中國地震學家曾成功預報了1975年2月4日的遼寧省海城大地震[9]，政府在地震前一天疏散了一百萬人。\n但是1976年7月28日唐山大地震事前卻無任何預警，當次地震超過250,000死亡人數以及164,000人員受傷；另一次在1999年11月29日的海城岫巖地震，事前同樣無任何預警。\n\n美國[編輯]\n2004年初，洛杉磯加利福尼亞大學由Vladimir Keilis-Borok帶領的一群科學家預言南加州九月將有一場與2003年San Simeo地震規模相當的地震，機率是百分之五十。\n到了2004年4月，加州地震預報評估委員會（CEPEC）向州政府報告「預測並不可靠，而且涉及的地域廣大（12,400平方哩），所以這些結果不能作為加州採取特殊手段的正當理由。」[10]結果在預報的時間窗口內並無明顯地震。\n\n義大利[編輯]\n2009年拉奎拉地震發生前一個月，一位名叫賈寶洛的實驗室技術人員，根據地面增加的放射性氡氣排放量，研判會有大地震發生。結果他被義大利民防單位指控危言聳聽，還被移送警方偵辦，罪名是製造民眾恐慌。而就在賈寶洛被移送的同時，官方的專家在拉奎拉召開會議，大量接受媒體訪問，保證說不會發生地震。官方的地震測報中心官員後來遭到民眾指控提供不正確的資訊，7名科學家被依過失殺人罪名、求處4年徒刑。\n\n地震預警[編輯]\n\n地震的預警監測比地震預測更可靠，其原理是偵測P波；P波在地殼中的傳遞速度快過具破壞力的S波及雷利波，故可先期偵測。此法只能提早數秒（對於較深及較遠的大地震，或可達數十秒）預警。現時有一套稱作 QuakeGuard™ [11]\n的系統能用這套技術自動應變，以減少人員及財產損失。\n加州大學的 Richard Allen 在發表於《自然》的一篇論文中聲稱：在地震發生的前幾秒，可以從地震儀的紀錄中預判地震大小[12]，它的結果還沒被其它學者認可。若然，則地震的早期預警將能更為有效。\n\n參考文獻[編輯]\n引用[編輯]\n\n\n移至 ^ Earthquake Prediction. Ruth Ludwin, U.S. Geological Survey.\n\n移至 ^ 意地震專家獲刑：地震殺人還是科學家過失殺人. 科學網. 2012-10-31 [2012-11-13].\n\n移至 ^ \nChi-Yu King. Earthquake prediction: Electromagnetic emissions before earthquakes. Nature. 1983, 301 (377).\n\n移至 ^ （法文）Satellite défilant du CNES (France). [2006年10月22日]. （原始內容存檔於2008年5月19日）.\n\n移至 ^ VAN METHOD\n\n移至 ^ Seiya UYEDA, The VAN Method of Short-Term Earthquake Prediction,RIKEN International Frontier Program on Earthquake Research, Tokai University\n\n移至 ^ （英文）T. Bleier and F. Freund. Earthquake [earthquake warning systems]. Spectrum, IEEE. 2005年12月, 42 (12): 22–27 [2006年10月22日].\n\n移至 ^ Woith, Heiko; Petersen, Gesa M.; Hainzl, Sebastian; Dahm, Torsten. Review: Can Animals Predict Earthquakes?. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 2018-04-17. doi:10.1785/0120170313.\n\n移至 ^ （英文）Glenn Richard. Earthquake Prediction: Haicheng, China - 1975. Earth Science Educational Resource Center. 2001 [2006年10月22日]. （原始內容存檔於2006年9月4日）. 石溪大學礦物物理研究所一個討論班的講義\n\n移至 ^ （英文）California Earthquake Prediction Evaluation Council. Report to the Director, Governor's Office of Emergency Services (PDF). 2002年3月 [2006年10月22日]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2008年5月27日）.\n\n移至 ^ （英文）Earthquake P-wave Pre-Detection and Disaster Mitigation Technology. 1999. （原始內容存檔於2008-08-21）.\n\n移至 ^ （英文）Rachel Abercrombie. The start of something big?. Nature. November 9, 2005: 171 [2006年10月22日].\n\n\n來源[編輯]\n\nAceves, Richard L.; Park, Stephen K.; Strauss, David J., Statistical evaluation of the VAN Method using the historic earthquake catalog in Greece, Geophysical Research Letters, 27 May 1996, 23 (11): 1425–1428, Bibcode:1996GeoRL..23.1425A, ISSN 1944-8007, doi:10.1029/96GL01478 （英語）.\nThe Ad Hoc Working Group on the December 2—3, 1990, Earthquake Prediction [AHWG], Evaluation of the December 2–3, 1990, New Madrid Seismic Zone Prediction, 18 October 1990. Included in App. B of Spence等 1993.\nAggarwal, Yash P.; Sykes, Lynn R.; Simpson, David W.; Richards, Paul G., Spatial and Temporal Variations in ts/tp and in P Wave Residuals at Blue Mountain Lake, New York: Application to Earthquake Prediction, Journal of Geophysical Research, 10 February 1975, 80 (5): 718–732, Bibcode:1975JGR....80..718A, doi:10.1029/JB080i005p00718.\nAlexander, David E., The L'Aquila Earthquake of 6 April 2009 and Italian Government Policy on Disaster Response, Journal of Natural Resources Policy Research, 2010, 2 (4): 325–342, doi:10.1080/19390459.2010.511450.\nAllen, Clarence R., Responsibilities in earthquake prediction, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, December 1976, 66 (6): 2069–2074.\nAllen, Clarence R., Earthquake Prediction – 1982 Overview, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, December 1982, 72 (6B): S331–S335.\nAllen, Clarence R., The Southern California Earthquake Prediction of 1976 : A Prediction Unfulfilled (PDF), Proceedings of the Seminar on Earthquake Prediction Case Histories, Geneva, 12–15 October 1982: UNDRO: 77–82, 1983.\nAnagnostopoulos, Stavros A., Letter (PDF), Physics Today, June 1998: 96.\nAnonymous [Haicheng Earthquake Study Delegation], Prediction of the Haicheng Earthquake, Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, May 1977, 58 (5): 236–272, Bibcode:1977EOSTr..58..236., doi:10.1029/EO058i005p00236. (Sometimes cited as Raleigh, et al., 1977.)\nApostolidis, C., Problepsi gia seismo 6 rixter, Ethnos (Pegasus Publishing), 2008-02-10 [2016-07-16], （原始內容存檔於2016-07-15）（希臘語）.\nAtwood, L. Erwin; Major, Ann Marie, Exploring the \"Cry Wolf\" Hypothesis, International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, November 1998, 16 (3): 279–302.\nBakun, W. H.; Aagaard, B.; Dost, B.; Ellsworth, W. L.; Hardebeck, J. L.; Harris, R. A.; Ji, C.; Johnston, M. J. S.; Langbein, J.; Lienkaemper, J. J.; Michael, A. J.; Murray, J. R.; Nadeau, R. M.; Reasenberg, P. A.; Reichle, M. S.; Roeloffs, E. A.; Shakal, A.; Simpson, R. W.; Simpson, R. W.; and Waldhauser, F., Implications for prediction and hazard assessment from the 2004 Parkfield earthquake, Nature, 13 October 2005, 437 (7061): 969–974, Bibcode:2005Natur.437..969B, PMID 16222291, doi:10.1038/nature04067.\nBakun, W.H.; Breckenridge, K.S.; Bredehoeft, J.; Burford, R.O.; Ellsworth, W.L.; Johnston, M.J.S.; Jones, L.; Lindh, A.G.; Mortensen, C.; Mueller, R. J.; Poley, C. M.; Roeloffs, E.; Schulz, S.; Segall, P.; Thatcher, W., Parkfield, California, Earthquake Prediction Scenarios and Response Plans (PDF), U.S. Geological Survey, 1 May 1987,, Open-File Report 87-192.\nBakun, W. H.; Lindh, A. G., The Parkfield, California, Earthquake Prediction Experiment (PDF), Science, 16 August 1985, 229 (4714): 619–624, Bibcode:1985Sci...229..619B, PMID 17739363, doi:10.1126/science.229.4714.619.\nBakun, W. H.; McEvilly, T. V., Earthquakes near Parkfield, California: Comparing the 1934 and 1966 Sequences (PDF), Science, 28 September 1979, 205 (4413): 1375–1377, Bibcode:1979Sci...205.1375B, PMID 17732330, doi:10.1126/science.205.4413.1375.\nBernard, P., Plausibility of long distance electrotelluric precursors to earthquakes, Journal of Geophysical Research, 10 November 1992, 97: 17531–17546, Bibcode:1992JGR....9717531B, doi:10.1029/92JB01215.\nBernard, P.; LeMouel, J. L., On electrotelluric signals, A critical review of VAN, London: Lighthill, S. J. World Scientific: 118–154, 1996.\nBolt, Bruce A., Earthquakes and geological discovery, Scientific American Library, 1993, ISBN 0-7167-5040-6.\nBowman, D. D.; Quillon, G.; Sammis, C. G.; Sornette, A.; Sornette, D., An observational test of the critical earthquake concept (PDF), Journal of Geophysical Research, 10 October 1998, 103 (10): 24,359–24,372, Bibcode:1998JGR...10324359B, arXiv:cond-mat/9803204, doi:10.1029/98jb00792.\nBrown, Roger; Kulik, James, Flashbulb memories, Cognition, 1977, 5 (1): 73–99, doi:10.1016/0010-0277(77)90018-X.\nCalifornia Earthquake Prediction Evaluation Council, Report to the Director, Governor's Office of Emergency Services (PDF), 2 March 2004a.\nCalifornia Earthquake Prediction Evaluation Council, Report to the Director, Governor's Office of Emergency Services, 9 December 2004b, （原始內容存檔於2013年1月19日）.\nCampbell, W. 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Douglas; Jordan, Thomas H., Testing alarm-based earthquake predictions (PDF), Geophysical Journal International, 2008, 172 (2): 715–724, Bibcode:2008GeoJI.172..715Z, doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2007.03676.x, （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於29 April 2014） .\nZechar, J. Douglas; Schorlemmer, Danijel; Liukis, Maria; Yu, John; Euchner, Fabian; Maechling, Philip J.; Jordan, Thomas H., The Collaboratory for the Study of Earthquake Predictability perspective on computational earthquake science (PDF), Concurrency and Computation: Practice and Experience, 2010, 22 (12): 1836–1847, doi:10.1002/cpe.1519, （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2014-04-29）.\nZiv, A.; Cochard, A.; Schmittbuhl, J., Does Elastic Rebound Theory apply to Seismic Faults?, (編) Carpinteri, Alberto; Lacidogna, Giuseppi, Selected Papers from the 11th International Conference on Fracture, Turin, Italy, March 20–25, 2005: 51–55, 2007, ISBN 978-0-415-44402-6 (eBook: 978-0-203-93611-5).\nZoback, Mark D., Seismology [book review of Rikitake, Earthquake Forecasting and Warning] (PDF), Science, 21 October 1983, 222 (4621): 319, Bibcode:1983Sci...222..319R, doi:10.1126/science.222.4621.319.\nZoback, Mary Lou, The 1906 earthquake and a century of progress in understanding earthquakes and their hazards (PDF), GSA Today, April–May 2006, 16 (r/5): 4–11, doi:10.1130/GSAT01604.1.\n\n外部連結[編輯]\n美國地質局對地震預測的觀點\n潮汐力與地震的相關研究：發表於1967年與1968年，然而 U.S. Geological Survey: Common Myths About Earthquakes一文的觀點與之相左。\n唐山大地震背後的真相\n日本因預測地震仍有困難廢除地震預知委員會\n《自然》文章稱地震不可預測或影響日本地震預報政策\n參見[編輯]\n\n海城大地震\n地震預警系統\n地震學"],["topImageUrl","https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Eq-prob.jpg"],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","為什麼地震預測這麼難？——《震識》 - PanSci 泛科學"],["url","http://pansci.asia/archives/120710"],["summary","文／潘昌志｜「你地質系的？」不，但我待過地質所，而且還是海研所的碩士。無論在氣象局、小牛頓…都一樣熱愛地科與科普。現在從事試題研發工作，並持續在《地球故事書》、《泛科學》、《國語日報》等專欄分享地科的各種知識，想以科普寫作喚醒人們對地球的愛。\n\n之前我們聊到「拉奎拉的悲劇」時，曾提到當地政府因為短時間內小地震過於頻繁，又加上民間預測專家提出了預測，因此特別出面開記者會因應。為什麼多數地震學家對預測地震這件事這麼「敏感」？又為什麼會這麼不信任地震預測的研究？這是件從根本上就很難解的問題……。\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n過去筆者在地震預測的主題上已撰寫過兩篇文章，在我們離「預測地震」還有多遠？一文中，概述了目前主要地震前兆研究的相關科學進展與難處。而在地震預測，是真有其事還是危言聳聽？難道不能寧可信其有嗎？一文中，則是在探討「如果地震預測的科學還未成熟，任意就粗糙的研究結果發布預測警告，是件多麼危險的事！」\n發布地震預測警報的困境，最理想的狀況是左上（有警報且發震）和右下（沒警報沒地震）。沒警報卻發生嚴重地震（左下）或是發布警報卻沒發生地震（右上），都會造成比未提供預報還多的損失。所以如果沒有成熟且誤報率極低的技術，貿然發布不止是兩難的困境，還可能造成不必要的損失。圖／By J. Johnson – Own work, CC0, wikimedia commons\n但話說回來，為什麼地震預測這麼難？又為什麼很多個人的研究，很難被學者們認同是有科學根據的預測？這並非是研究上的爭議，而是科學方法和科學精神上若不夠嚴謹，這才是學者們更在意的地方。\n無論是「地震的成因是因為板塊錯動？事情沒有那麼簡單！」一文中的歷史脈絡，或是其它科學史故事，都呈現出一種特性：科學知識非但不是一成不變，還會隨著時間流逝不斷「修正」。\n我之所以特別用「修正」而非「推翻」的詞彙來詮釋，是因為科學並不是「誰說了算」，而是當更新的證據出現時，除了需要重新檢視我們過去的看法，還得以同樣嚴謹的角度去檢驗新的證據，所以不管是什麼科學上的新發現或看法，都需要蠻常一段時間去蘊釀，如果這些新看法與當代的科學知識相衝突時，就更需要時間讓觀念融合，又或者是新的觀念本身也存在著缺陷。像是哥白尼的日心說在當時難以被接受，最大的問題就是他將行星公轉軌道假設為正圓形，顯然於觀測事實不符，即使日心說較地心說更接近真實情況，那也是在他之後的克卜勒、牛頓等人的貢獻了。\n回到正題，如果今天某某人聲稱他可以「用某種你沒聽過的觀測手段精準預測地震」，那到底是真還是假？是胡扯嗎？還是跨時代的觀念？\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n如果用這樣的角度或過去的例子來支持這類理論，那就完全錯誤理解科學方法的中心精神。許多科學史上的「修正」，多數要花上數十年以上的時間重覆驗證，而在漫長且嚴苛的驗證過程中，淘汰掉的未必是舊的論點，也可能是新的想法出現瑕疵而被自然消滅。我們現在看到的科學史脈絡，其實也已經是簡化過的故事，它能說明的只是科學的「可否證性」，簡單來說，就是有一個可以否定原來某個理論的鐵證，那舊的理論就該放棄了！\n科學知識永遠不會是唯一真理，因為科學只是用來幫助我們「解釋自然現象」、「理解這世界的運作方式」而已。雖然我們學習科學時，一定會學一堆要「背」的知識，如加減乘除開根號、如牛頓運動定律……等等，但這些知識並非教條，而是代表它在長時間的檢驗及淬鍊之下，已經很難被否證了。而這些知識會變成根基，他就像你在打電動破關一樣，當你得到了裡面已經經歷過事件或是已經破過的關卡存檔資歷時，就不用再重新破關一樣。\n科學之所以可以日新月異，也是拜這樣實事求是的精神所賜，並不是無法檢討過去的基礎理論，而是如果沒有比基礎理論更好的解釋，那就無法取代。\n可是，如果你問我：「我不具地震學背景，又懶得重新了解，那該怎麼分辨是非對錯？」\n在回答這個問題時，我想先說明一件事：當所謂的「某某地震預測理論」告訴你，他們能做出多精準、多好的預測時，真正的科學家不會著眼於他們提出的事證，也就是成功預測的結果，而是這項理論有沒有限制、規範和例外，或是有沒有辦法提出一道合乎基礎的科學定理（以地震而言，起碼就牽涉了物理學）。更重要的是，這個「理論」能不能禁得起重覆驗證、能不能「每個人來做都能得到同樣的結果」、所有的事是否都攤在陽光下供任何人檢驗。\n有很多人都在作這樣的檢驗，像是由專業學者審查的學術期刊、世界各地的學術單位、政府防災單位等等。假如是個實用且有成效的理論，世界各地的學者皆沒有道理反對。\n所以結論就變得很簡單，科學發展至此，可以說已有很完整的方法和檢驗架構，能解釋較多事實的理論就會留下，而不好的理論也就自然淘汰。我們也不太能為此操心什麼。把握好自己能掌握的事，或許更加實際吧！\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n至於什麼是「能掌握的事」？對一般大眾而言，包括像是了解住家的耐震情況、怎麼運用緊急地震速報等知識，都是一種掌握災害的方法。至於科學部分，雖然從我們前面的論述，可以體會到要建立地震預測的新理論難度很高、限制重重，但路難行並非不可行，只是會走得慢，因為需要走的更嚴謹。\n舉個例來說，下面有張在日本高速公路休息區中拍攝到的照片，日本對於許多斷層都作了地震潛勢的研究，除了估算出地震的潛勢，也會評估發生地震時的最大搖晃的「地震動預估」，這種以科學為立基的模擬，多少可以增加對災害發生時的情境想像，或許也是一種可以用來面對未知災害時，增加準備的方式。\n\n或許我們無法預測地震何時到來，但對於一定會來的地震，還是不能掉以輕心。\n本文原發表於《震識：那些你想知道的震事》部落格，或是加入按讚我們的粉絲專頁持續關注。將會得到最科學前緣的地震時事、最淺顯易懂的地震知識、還有最貼近人心的地震故事。\n延伸閱讀：\n\nTED 死都不該讓你看的兩個演講？\n正視地震威脅，活用地震知識－－《震識》對未來的期盼\n\n\n\n您最近是不是也有以下的感受？\n1.各類議題中的科學及專業知識日益複雜，想懂實在太難。\n2.資訊爆炸、真假難辨、覺得無所適從，甚至想不聽不看。\n3.擔心身邊的人受偽科學與謠言所誤，但不知道該怎麼辦。\n這時候你需要「科學思辨力」幫助你，建立自己的邏輯、跨過複雜議題討論的門檻、提升資訊選擇、處理與溝通的能力。\n用 12 堂課讓你成為更能面對未來變化的公民吧！早鳥優惠只到10/2 ，還不快手刀購買！\n課程內容詳見：《科學思辨力》"],["topImageUrl","https://pansci.asia/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/0c24b94d5fd9aa81e437a0e4ca25aa57.jpg"],["error",null]]}]}],["text","出處：https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/地震預測\n\nhttp://pansci.asia/archives/120710"],["id","3lkpsm9mx0klf"],["createdAt","2021-08-10T04:46:13.839Z"]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",1],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",7],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_8K2j7ulOoiGUESmrLrwuct7AT98L-mYuQab3OFk_45I"],["name","羞澀的烈嶼葛萊蒂絲"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","Hydrogel - Wikipedia"],["url","https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogel"],["summary","A hydrogel is a biphasic material, a mixture of porous, permeable solids and at least 10% by weight or volume of interstitial fluid composed completely or mainly by water.[1] In hydrogels the porous permeable solid is a water insoluble three dimensional network of natural or synthetic polymers and a fluid, having absorbed a large amount of water or biological fluids.[2][3][4] These properties underpin several applications, especially in the biomedical area. Many hydrogels are synthetic, but some are derived from nature.[5][6] The term 'hydrogel' was coined in 1894.[7]Gelatin, here in sheets for cooking, is a hydrogel.Peptide hydrogel formation shown by the inverted vial method.\n\n\nChemistry\n \nEdit\n\n\nClassification\n \nEdit\n\n\nThe crosslinks which bond the polymers of a hydrogel fall under two general categories: physical hydrogels and chemical hydrogels. Chemical hydrogels have covalent cross-linking bonds, whereas physical hydrogels have non-covalent bonds.[citation needed] Chemical hydrogels can result in strong reversible or irreversible gels due to the covalent bonding.[8] Chemical hydrogels that contain reversible covalent cross-linking bonds such as hydrogels of thiomers being cross-linked via disulfide bonds are non-toxic and are used in numerous medicinal products.[9][10][11] Physical hydrogels usually have high biocompatibility, aren’t toxic, and are also easily reversible, by simply changing an external stimulus such as pH, ion concentration(alginate) or temperature(gelatine); they are also used for medical applications.[12][13][14][15][16] Physical crosslinks consist of hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and chain entanglements (among others). A hydrogel generated through the use of physical crosslinks is sometimes called a 'reversible' hydrogel.[12] Chemical crosslinks consist of covalent bonds between polymer strands. Hydrogels generated in this manner are sometimes called 'permanent' hydrogels.\nHydrogels are prepared using a variety of polymeric materials, which can be divided broadly into two categories according to their origin: natural or synthetic polymers. Natural polymers for hydrogel preparation include hyaluronic acid, chitosan, heparin, alginate, gelatin and fibrin.[17] Common synthetic polymers include polyvinyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, sodium polyacrylate, acrylate polymers and copolymers thereof.[5] Whereas natural hydrogels are usually non-toxic, and often provides other advantages for medical use, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, antibiotic/antifungal effect and improve regeneration of nearby tissue, their stability and strength is usually much lower than synthetic hydrogels.[18] There are also synthetic hydrogels than can be used for medical applications, such as Polyethylene glycol (PEG), polyacrylate, and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP).[19]\nPreparation\n \nEdit\n\n\n Simplified scheme to show the self-assembly process involved in hydrogel formation.There are two suggested mechanisms behind physical hydrogel formation, the first one being the gelation of nanofibrous peptide assemblies, usually observed for oligopeptide precursors. The precursors self-assemble into fibers, tapes, tubes, or ribbons that entangle to form non-covalent cross-links. The second mechanism involves non-covalent interactions of cross-linked domains that are separated by water-soluble linkers, and this is usually observed in longer multi-domain structures.[20] Tuning of the supramolecular interactions to produce a self-supporting network that does not precipitate, and is also able to immobilize water which is vital for to gel formation. Most oligopeptide hydrogels have a β-sheet structure, and assemble to form fibers, although α-helical peptides have also been reported.[21][22] The typical mechanism of gelation involves the oligopeptide precursors self-assemble into fibers that become elongated, and entangle to form cross-linked gels.\nOne notable method of initiating a polymerization fuving involves the use of light as a stimulus. In this method, photoinitiators, compounds that cleave from the absorption of photons, are added to the precursor solution which will become the hydrogel. When the precursor solution is exposed to a concentrated source of light, usually ultraviolet irradiation, the photoinitiators will cleave and form free radicals, which will begin a polymerization reaction that forms crosslinks between polymer strands. This reaction will cease if the light source is removed, allowing the amount of crosslinks formed in the hydrogel to be controlled.[23] The properties of a hydrogel are highly dependent on the type and quantity of its crosslinks, making photopolymerization a popular choice for fine-tuning hydrogels. This technique has seen considerable use in cell and tissue engineering applications due to the ability to inject or mold a precursor solution loaded with cells into a wound site, then solidify it in situ.[24][23]Physically crosslinked hydrogels can be prepared by different methods depending on the nature of the crosslink involved. Polyvinyl alcohol hydrogels are usually produced by the freeze-thawed technique. In this, the solution is frozen for a few hours, then thawed at room temperature, and the cycle is repeated until a strong and stable hydrogel is formed.[25] Alginate hydrogels are formed by ionic interactions between alginate and double-charged cations. A salt, usually calcium chloride, is dissolved into an aqueous sodium alginate solution, that causes the calcium ions to create ionic bonds between alginate chains.[26] Gelatin hydrogels are formed by temperature change. A water solution of gelatin forms an hydrogel at temperatures below 37-35 °C, as Van der Waals interactions between collagen fibers become stronger than thermal molecular vibrations.[27]\nPeptides based hydrogels\n \nEdit\n\n\nPeptides based hydrogels possess exceptional biocompatibility and biodegradability qualities, giving rise to their wide use of applications, particularly in biomedicine; as such, their physical properties can be fine-tuned in order to maximise their use. Methods to do this are: modulation of the amino acid sequence, pH, chirality, and increasing the number of aromatic residues.[28] The order of amino acids within the sequence is crucial for gelation, as has been shown many times. In one example, a short peptide sequence Fmoc-Phe-Gly readily formed a hydrogel, whereas Fmoc-Gly-Phe failed to do so as a result of the two adjacent aromatic moieties being moved, hindering the aromatic interactions.[29][30] Altering the pH can also have similar effects, an example involved the use of the naphthalene (Nap) modified dipeptides Nap-Gly-Ala, and Nap- Ala-Gly, where a drop in pH induced gelation of the former, but led to crystallisation of the latter.[31] 74 A controlled pH decrease method using glucono-δ-lactone (GdL), where the GdL is hydrolysed to gluconic acid in water is a recent strategy that has been developed as a way to form homogeneous and reproducible hydrogels.[32][33] The hydrolysis is slow, which allows for a uniform pH change, and thus resulting in reproducible homogenous gels. In addition to this, the desired pH can be achieved by altering the amount of GdL added. The use of GdL has been used various times for the hydrogelation of Fmoc and Nap-dipeptides.[32][33] In another direction, Morris et al reported the use of GdL as a ‘molecular trigger’ to predict and control the order of gelation.[34] Chirality also plays an essential role in gel formation, and even changing the chirality of a single amino acid from its natural L-amino acid to its unnatural D-amino acid can significantly impact the gelation properties, with the natural forms not forming gels.[35] Furthermore, aromatic interactions play a key role in hydrogel formation as a result of π- π stacking driving gelation, shown by many studies.[36][37]\nOther\n \nEdit\n\n\nHydrogels also possess a degree of flexibility very similar to natural tissue due to their significant water content. As responsive \"smart materials\", hydrogels can encapsulate chemical systems which upon stimulation by external factors such as a change of pH may cause specific compounds such as glucose to be liberated to the environment, in most cases by a gel–sol transition to the liquid state. Chemomechanical polymers are mostly also hydrogels, which upon stimulation change their volume and can serve as actuators or sensors.\n\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA micropump based on a hydrogel bar (4×0.3×0.05 mm size) actuated by applied voltage. This pump can be continuously operated with a 1.5 V battery for at least 6 months.[38]\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA short-peptide-based hydrogel matrix, capable of holding about one hundred times its own weight in water. Developed as a medical dressing.\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPhoto of the same short-peptide-based hydrogel, held in forceps to demonstrate its stiffness and transparency.\n\n\t\t\nMechanical properties\n \nEdit\n\n\nHydrogels have been investigated for diverse applications. By modifying the polymer concentration of a hydrogel (or conversely, the water concentration), the Young's modulus, shear modulus, and storage modulus can vary from 10 Pa to 3 MPa, a range of about five orders of magnitude.[39] A similar effect can be seen by altering the crosslinking concentration.[39] This much variability of the mechanical stiffness is why hydrogels are so appealing for biomedical applications, where it is vital for implants to match the mechanical properties of the surrounding tissues.[40] Characterizing the mechanical properties of hydrogels can be difficult especially due to the differences in mechanical behavior that hydrogels have in comparison to other traditional engineering materials. In addition to its rubber elasticity and viscoelasticity, hydrogels have an additional time dependent deformation mechanism which is dependent on fluid flow called poroelasticity. These properties are extremely important to consider while performing mechanical experiments. Some common mechanical testing experiments for hydrogels are tension, compression (confined or unconfined), indentation, shear rheometry or dynamic mechanical analysis.[39]Hydrogels have two main regimes of mechanical properties: rubber elasticity and viscoelasticity:\n\nRubber elasticity\n \nEdit\n\n\nIn the unswollen state, hydrogels can be modelled as highly crosslinked chemical gels, in which the system can be described as one continuous polymer network. In this case:\nwhere G is the shear modulus, k is the Boltzmann constant, T is temperature, Np is the number of polymer chains per unit volume, ρ is the density, R is the ideal gas constant, and is the (number) average molecular weight between two adjacent cross-linking points. can be calculated from the swell ratio, Q, which is relatively easy to test and measure.[39]For the swollen state, a perfect gel network can be modeled as:[39]In a simple uniaxial extension or compression test, the true stress, , and engineering stress, , can be calculated as:\nwhere is the stretch.[39]\nViscoelasticity\n \nEdit\n\n\nFor hydrogels, their elasticity comes from the solid polymer matrix while the viscosity originates from the polymer network mobility and the water and other components that make up the aqueous phase.[41] Viscoelastic properties of a hydrogel is highly dependent on the nature of the applied mechanical motion. Thus, the time dependence of these applied forces is extremely important for evaluating the viscoelasticity of the material.[42]Physical models for viscoelasticity attempt to capture the elastic and viscous material properties of a material. In an elastic material, the stress is proportional to the strain while in a viscous material, the stress is proportional to the strain rate. The Maxwell model is one developed mathematical model for linear viscoelastic response. In this model, viscoelasticity is modeled analogous to an electrical circuit with a Hookean spring, that represents the Young's modulus, and a Newtonian dashpot that represents the viscosity. A material that exhibit properties described in this model is a Maxwell material. Another physical model used is called the Kelvin-Voigt Model and a material that follow this model is called a Kelvin–Voigt material.[43] In order to describe the time-dependent creep and stress-relaxation behavior of hydrogel, a variety of physical lumped parameter models can be used.[39] These modeling methods vary greatly and are extremely complex, so the empirical Prony Series description is commonly used to describe the viscoelastic behavior in hydrogels.[39]In order to measure the time-dependent viscoelastic behavior of polymers dynamic mechanical analysis is often performed. Typically, in these measurements the one side of the hydrogel is subjected to a sinusoidal load in shear mode while the applied stress is measured with a stress transducer and the change in sample length is measured with a strain transducer.[42] One notation used to model the sinusoidal response to the periodic stress or strain is:\n\n in which G' is the real (elastic or storage) modulus, G\" is the imaginary (viscous or loss) modulus.\n\nPoroelasticity\n \nEdit\n\n\nPoroelasticity is a characteristic of materials related to the migration of solvent through a porous material and the concurrent deformation that occurs.[39] Poroelasticity in hydrated materials such as hydrogels occurs due to friction between the polymer and water as the water moves through the porous matrix upon compression. This causes a decrease in water pressure, which adds additional stress upon compression. Similar to viscoelasticity, this behavior is time dependent, thus poroelasticity is dependent on compression rate: a hydrogel shows softness upon slow compression, but fast compression makes the hydrogel stiffer. This phenomenon is due to the friction between the water and the porous matrix is proportional to the flow of water, which in turn is dependent on compression rate. Thus, a common way to measure poroelasticity is to do compression tests at varying compression rates.[44] Pore size is an important factor in influencing poroelasticity. The Kozeny–Carman equation has been used to predict pore size by relating the pressure drop to the difference in stress between two compression rates.[44]Poroelasticity is described by several coupled equations, thus there are few mechanical tests that relate directly to the poroelastic behavior of the material, thus more complicated tests such as indentation testing, numerical or computational models are utilized. Numerical or computational methods attempt to simulate the three dimensional permeability of the hydrogel network.\n\nEnvironmental response\n \nEdit\n\n\nThe most commonly seen environmental sensitivity in hydrogels is a response to temperature.[45] Many polymers/hydrogels exhibit a temperature dependent phase transition, which can be classified as either an upper critical solution temperature (UCST) or lower critical solution temperature (LCST). UCST polymers increase in their water-solubility at higher temperatures, which lead to UCST hydrogels transitioning from a gel (solid) to a solution (liquid) as the temperature is increased (similar to the melting point behavior of pure materials). This phenomenon also causes UCST hydrogels to expand (increase their swell ratio) as temperature increases while they are below their UCST.[45] However, polymers with LCSTs display an inverse (or negative) temperature-dependence, where their water-solubility decreases at higher temperatures. LCST hydrogels transition from a liquid solution to a solid gel as the temperature is increased, and they also shrink (decrease their swell ratio) as the temperature increases while they are above their LCST.[45]Applications can dictate for diverse thermal responses. For example, in the biomedical field, LCST hydrogels are being investigated as drug delivery systems due to being injectable (liquid) at room temp and then solidifying into a rigid gel upon exposure to the higher temperatures of the human body.[45] There are many other stimuli that hydrogels can be responsive to, including: pH, glucose, electrical signals, light, pressure, ions, antigens, and more.[45]\nAdditives\n \nEdit\n\n\nThe mechanical properties of hydrogels can be fine-tuned in many ways beginning with attention to their hydrophobic properties.[45][46] Another method of modifying the strength or elasticity of hydrogels is to graft or surface coat them onto a stronger/stiffer support, or by making superporous hydrogel (SPH) composites, in which a cross-linkable matrix swelling additive is added.[6] Other additives, such as nanoparticles and microparticles, have been shown to significantly modify the stiffness and gelation temperature of certain hydrogels used in biomedical applications.[47][48][49]\nProcessing techniques\n \nEdit\n\n\nWhile a hydrogel's mechanical properties can be tuned and modified through crosslink concentration and additives, these properties can also be enhanced or optimized for various applications through specific processing techniques. These techniques include electro-spinning, 3D/4D printing, self-assembly, and freeze-casting. One unique processing technique is through the formation of multi-layered hydrogels to create a spatially-varying matrix composition and by extension, mechanical properties. This can be done by polymerizing the hydrogel matrixes in a layer by layer fashion via UV polymerization. This technique can be useful in creating hydrogels that mimic articular cartilage, enabling a material with three separate zones of distinct mechanical properties.[50]Another emerging technique to optimize hydrogel mechanical properties is by taking advantage of the Hofmeister series. Due to this phenomenon, through the addition of salt solution, the polymer chains of a hydrogel aggregate and crystallize, which increases the toughness of the hydrogel. This method, called \"salting out\", has been applied to poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels by adding a sodium sulfate salt solution.[51] Some of these processing techniques can be used synergistically with each other to yield optimal mechanical properties. Directional freezing or freeze-casting is another method in which a directional temperature gradient is applied to the hydrogel is another way to form materials with anisotropic mechanical properties. Utilizing both the freeze-casting and salting-out processing techniques on poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels to induce hierarchical morphologies and anisotropic mechanical properties.[52] Directional freezing of the hydrogels helps to align and coalesce the polymer chains, creating anisotropic array honeycomb tube-like structures while salting out the hydrogel yielded out a nano-fibril network on the surface of these honeycomb tube-like structures. While maintaining a water content of over 70%, these hydrogels' toughness values are well above those of water-free polymers such as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), Kevlar, and synthetic rubber. The values also surpass the toughness of natural tendon and spider silk.[52]\nApplications\n \nEdit\n\n\nSoft contact lenses\n \nEdit\n\n\n Molecular structure of silicone hydrogel used in flexible, oxygen-permeable contact lenses.[53]The dominant material for contact lenses are acrylate-siloxane hydrogels. They have replaced hard contact lenses. One of their most attractive properties is oxygen permeability, which is required since the cornea lacks vasculature.\n\nResearch\n \nEdit\n\n\n Human mesenchymal stem cell interacting with 3D hydrogel - imaged with label-free live cell imaging An adhesive bandage with a hydrogel pad, used for blisters and burns. The central gel is clear, the adhesive waterproof plastic film is clear, the backing is white and blue.Coatings for gas evolution reaction electrodes for efficient bubble detachment [54][55][56]\nBreast implants\nContact lenses (silicone hydrogels, polyacrylamides, polymacon)\nWater sustainability: Hydrogels have emerged as promising materials platforms for solar-powered water purification,[57] water disinfection,[58] and Atmospheric water generator.[59]\nDisposable diapers where they absorb urine, or in sanitary napkins[24]\nDressings for healing of burn or other hard-to-heal wounds. Wound gels are excellent for helping to create or maintain a moist environment.\nEEG and ECG medical electrodes using hydrogels composed of cross-linked polymers (polyethylene oxide, polyAMPS and polyvinylpyrrolidone)\nEncapsulation of quantum dots\nEnvironmentally sensitive hydrogels (also known as 'smart gels' or 'intelligent gels'). These hydrogels have the ability to sense changes of pH, temperature, or the concentration of metabolite and release their load as result of such a change.[60][61][62]\nFibers\nGlue\nGranules for holding soil moisture in arid areas\nAir bubble-repellent (superaerophobicity). Can improve the performance and stability of electrodes for water electrolysis.[63]\nCulturing cells: Hydrogel-coated wells have been used for cell culture.[64]\nBiosensors: Hydrogels that are responsive to specific molecules,[65] such as glucose or antigens, can be used as biosensors, as well as in DDS.[66]\nCell carrier: Injectable hydrogels can be used to carry drugs or cells for applications in tissue regeneration or 3D bioprinting.[67][68][69] Hydrogels with reversible chemistry are required to allow for fluidization during injection/printing followed by self-healing of the original hydrogel structure.[70]\nInvestigate cell biomechanical functions combined with holotomography microscopy\nProvide absorption, desloughing and debriding of necrotic and fibrotic tissue\nTissue engineering scaffolds. When used as scaffolds, hydrogels may contain human cells to repair tissue. They mimic 3D microenvironment of cells.[71] Materials include agarose, methylcellulose, hyaluronan, elastin-like polypeptides, and other naturally derived polymers.\nSustained-release drug delivery systems. Ionic strength, pH and temperature can be used as a triggering factor to control the release of the drug.[72]\nWindow coating/replacement: Hydrogels are under consideration for reducing infrared light absorption by 75%.[73] Another approach reduced interior temperature using a temperature-responsive hydrogel.[74]\nThermodynamic electricity generation: When combined with ions allows for heat dissipation for electronic devices and batteries and converting the heat exchange to an electrical charge.[75]\nWater gel explosives\nControlled release of agrochemicals (pesticides and fertilizer)\nTalin Shock Absorbing Materials - protein-based hydrogels that can absorb supersonic impacts[76]Biomaterials\n \nEdit\n\n\nImplanted or injected hydrogels have the potential to support tissue regeneration by mechanical tissue support, localized drug or cell delivery, local cell recruitement or immunomodulation, or encapsulation of nanoparticles for local photothermal or brachytherapy.[70] Polymeric drug delivery systems have overcome challenge due to their biodegradability, biocompatibility, and anti-toxicity.[77][78] Materials such as collagen, chitosan, cellulose, and poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) have been implemented extensively for drug delivery to organs such as eye,[79] nose, kidneys,[80] lungs,[81] intestines,[82] skin[83] and brain. Future work is focused on reducing toxicity, improving biocompatibility, expanding assembly techniques[84]Hydrogels have been considered as vehicles for drug delivery.[85][67][68][69] They can also be made to mimic animal mucosal tissues to be used for testing mucoadhesive properties.[86][87] They have been examined for use as reservoirs in topical drug delivery; particularly ionic drugs, delivered by iontophoresis.\n\nReferences\n \nEdit\n\n\n This article incorporates text by Jessica Hutchinson available under the CC BY 3.0 license.\n\n\n^ Wichterle, O.; Lím, D. (1960-01-01). \"Hydrophilic Gels for Biological Use\". Nature. 185 (4706): 117–118. Bibcode:1960Natur.185..117W. doi:10.1038/185117a0. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4211987.\n\n^ Shrivastava, Priya; Vishwakarma, Nikhar; Gautam, Laxmikant; Vyas, Suresh P. 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(April 2020). \"Superaerophobic hydrogels for enhanced electrochemical and photoelectrochemical hydrogen production\". Science Advances. 6 (15): eaaz3944. Bibcode:2020SciA....6.3944J. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaz3944. PMC 7148083. PMID 32300656.\n\n^ Discher DE, Janmey P, Wang YL (November 2005). \"Tissue cells feel and respond to the stiffness of their substrate\". Science. 310 (5751): 1139–1143. Bibcode:2005Sci...310.1139D. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.318.690. doi:10.1126/science.1116995. PMID 16293750. S2CID 9036803.\n\n^ Schneider HJ, ed. (2015). Chemoresponsive Materials. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-1-78262-242-0.\n\n^ Yetisen AK, Naydenova I, da Cruz Vasconcellos F, et al. (October 2014). \"Holographic sensors: three-dimensional analyte-sensitive nanostructures and their applications\". Chemical Reviews. 114 (20): 10654–10696. doi:10.1021/cr500116a. 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Chemical Reviews. 123 (2): 834–873. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00179. PMC 9881015. PMID 35930422.\n\n^ Mellati A, Dai S, Bi J, et al. (2014). \"A biodegradable thermosensitive hydrogel with tuneable properties for mimicking three-dimensional microenvironments of stem cells\". RSC Adv. 4 (109): 63951–63961. Bibcode:2014RSCAd...463951M. doi:10.1039/C4RA12215A. ISSN 2046-2069.\n\n^ Malmsten M, Bysell H, Hansson P (2010-12-01). \"Biomacromolecules in microgels — Opportunities and challenges for drug delivery\". Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science. 15 (6): 435–444. doi:10.1016/j.cocis.2010.05.016. ISSN 1359-0294.\n\n^ Irving, Michael (2022-08-31). \"Hydrogel glass windows let in more light and less heat\". New Atlas. Retrieved 2022-09-26.\n\n^ Miller, Brittney J. (8 June 2022). \"How smart windows save energy\". Knowable Magazine. doi:10.1146/knowable-060822-3. Retrieved 15 July 2022.\n\n^ \"A new way to cool down electronic devices, recover waste heat\". Phys.org. April 22, 2020. Retrieved April 23, 2020.\n\n^ Lavars, Nick (2022-12-15). \"New protein-based armor material can withstand supersonic impacts\". New Atlas. Retrieved 2022-12-25.\n\n^ Tang Y, Heaysman CL, Willis S, Lewis AL (September 2011). \"Physical hydrogels with self-assembled nanostructures as drug delivery systems\". Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery. 8 (9): 1141–1159. doi:10.1517/17425247.2011.588205. PMID 21619469. S2CID 24843309.\n\n^ Aurand ER, Lampe KJ, Bjugstad KB (March 2012). \"Defining and designing polymers and hydrogels for neural tissue engineering\". Neuroscience Research. 72 (3): 199–213. doi:10.1016/j.neures.2011.12.005. PMC 3408056. PMID 22192467.\n\n^ Ozcelik B, Brown KD, Blencowe A, et al. (May 2013). \"Ultrathin chitosan-poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogel films for corneal tissue engineering\". Acta Biomaterialia. 9 (5): 6594–6605. doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2013.01.020. PMID 23376126.\n\n^ Gao J, Liu R, Wu J, et al. (May 2012). \"The use of chitosan based hydrogel for enhancing the therapeutic benefits of adipose-derived MSCs for acute kidney injury\". Biomaterials. 33 (14): 3673–3681. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.01.061. PMID 22361096.\n\n^ Otani Y, Tabata Y, Ikada Y (April 1999). \"Sealing effect of rapidly curable gelatin-poly (L-glutamic acid) hydrogel glue on lung air leak\". The Annals of Thoracic Surgery. 67 (4): 922–926. doi:10.1016/S0003-4975(99)00153-8. PMID 10320229.\n\n^ Ramdas M, Dileep KJ, Anitha Y, et al. (April 1999). \"Alginate encapsulated bioadhesive chitosan microspheres for intestinal drug delivery\". Journal of Biomaterials Applications. 13 (4): 290–296. doi:10.1177/088532829901300402. PMID 10340211. S2CID 31364133.\n\n^ Liu X, Ma L, Mao Z, Gao C (2011), Jayakumar R, Prabaharan M, Muzzarelli RA (eds.), \"Chitosan-Based Biomaterials for Tissue Repair and Regeneration\", Chitosan for Biomaterials II, Advances in Polymer Science, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, vol. 244, pp. 81–127, doi:10.1007/12_2011_118, ISBN 978-3-642-24061-4\n\n^ Wu ZL, Gong JP (June 2011). \"Hydrogels with self-assembling ordered structures and their functions\". NPG Asia Materials. 3 (6): 57–64. doi:10.1038/asiamat.2010.200. ISSN 1884-4057.\n\n^ Kim J, Yaszemski MJ, Lu L (December 2009). \"Three-dimensional porous biodegradable polymeric scaffolds fabricated with biodegradable hydrogel porogens\". Tissue Engineering. Part C, Methods. 15 (4): 583–594. doi:10.1089/ten.TEC.2008.0642. PMC 2819712. PMID 19216632.\n\n^ Cook MT, Smith SL, Khutoryanskiy VV (October 2015). \"Novel glycopolymer hydrogels as mucosa-mimetic materials to reduce animal testing\". Chemical Communications. 51 (77): 14447–14450. doi:10.1039/C5CC02428E. PMID 26221632.\n\n^ Cook MT, Khutoryanskiy VV (November 2015). \"Mucoadhesion and mucosa-mimetic materials--A mini-review\". International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 495 (2): 991–998. doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2015.09.064. hdl:2299/16856. PMID 26440734.\n\n\nFurther reading\n \nEdit"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","Particle size analysis - Wikipedia"],["url","https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_size_analysis"],["summary","Particle size analysis, particle size measurement, or simply particle sizing, is the collective name of the technical procedures, or laboratory techniques which determines the size range, and/or the average, or mean size of the particles in a powder or liquid sample.\nParticle size analysis is part of particle science, and it is generally carried out in particle technology laboratories.\nThe particle size measurement is typically achieved by means of devices, called Particle Size Analyzers (PSA), which are based on different technologies, such as high definition image processing, analysis of Brownian motion, gravitational settling of the particle and light scattering (Rayleigh and Mie scattering) of the particles.\nThe particle size can have considerable importance in a number of industries including the chemical, food, mining, forestry, agriculture, cosmetics, pharmaceutical, energy, and aggregate industries.\n\n\n\nParticle size analysis based on light scattering\n \nEdit\n\n\nParticle size analysis based on light scattering has widespread application in many fields, as it allows relatively easy optical characterization of samples enabling improved quality control of products in many industries including pharmaceutical, food, cosmetic, and polymer production.[1] Recent years have seen many advancements in light scattering technologies for particle characterization.\nFor particles in the lower nanometer to lower micrometer range, dynamic light scattering (DLS)[2] has now become an industry standard technique. It is also by far the most widely used light scattering technique for particle characterization in the academic world.[3] This method analyzes the fluctuations of scattered light by particles in suspension when illuminated with a laser to determine the velocity of the Brownian motion, which can then be used to obtain the hydrodynamic size of particles using the Stokes-Einstein relationship. DLS is a fast and non-invasive technique, which is also precise and highly repeatable.[4] Furthermore, since the technique is based on the measurement of light scattering as a function of time, the technique is considered absolute and the DLS instruments do not require calibration.[3] Amongst its disadvantages is the fact that it does not properly resolve highly polydisperse samples, while the presence of large particles can affect size accuracy. Other scattering techniques have emerged, such as nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA),[5] which tracks individual particle movement through scattering using image recording. NTA also measures the hydrodynamic size of particles from the diffusion coefficient but is capable of overcoming some of the limitations posed by DLS.[6] The next generation of NTA technology is called interferometric nanoparticle tracking analysis (iNTA)[7] and is based on the interferometric scattering microscopy (iSCAT). In contrast to NTA, iNTA has a superior size resolution and gives access to the effective refractive index of the particles.\nWhile the above-mentioned techniques are best suited for measuring particles typically in the submicron region, particle size analyzers (PSAs) based on static light scattering or laser diffraction (LD)[8] have become the most popular and widely used instruments for measuring particles from hundreds of nanometers to several millimeters. Similar scattering theory is also utilized in systems based on non-electromagnetic wave propagation, such as ultrasonic analyzers. In LD PSAs, a laser beam is used to irradiate a dilute suspension of particles. The light scattered by the particles in the forward direction is focused by a lens onto a large array of concentric photodetector rings. The smaller the particle is, the larger the scattering angle of the laser beam is. Thus, by measuring the angle-dependent scattered intensity, one can infer the particle size distribution using Fraunhofer or Mie scattering models.[9][10] In the latter case, prior knowledge of the refractive index of the particle being measured as well as the dispersant is required.\nCommercial LD PSAs have gained popularity due to their broad dynamic range, rapid measurement, high reproducibility and the capability to perform online measurements. However, these devices are generally large in size (~700 × 300 × 450 mm), heavy (~30 kg) and expensive (in the 50–200 K€ range). On the one hand, the large size of common devices is due to the large distance needed between the sample and the detectors to provide the desired angular resolution. Furthermore, their high price is mainly due to the use of expensive laser sources and a large number of detectors, i.e., one sensor for each scattering angle to be monitored. Some commercial devices contain up to twenty sensors. This complexity of commercial LD PSAs, together with the fact that they often require maintenance and highly trained personnel, make them impractical in the majority of online industrial applications, which require the installation of probes in processing environments, often at multiple locations. An alternative method for PSD is cuvette-based SPR technique, that simultaneously measures the particle size ranging 10 nm-10 µm and concentration in a standard spectrophotometer. The optical filter inserted in the cuvette consists of nano-photonic crystals with very high angular resolution, which enables the analysis of PSD by automatically quantifying Mie scattering and Rayleigh scattering.[11]The application of LD PSAs is also normally restricted to dilute suspensions. This is because the optical models used to estimate the particle size distribution (PSD) are based on a single scattering approximation. In practice, most industrial processes require measuring concentrated suspensions, where multiple scattering becomes a prominent effect. Multiple scattering in dense media leads to an underestimation of the particle size since the light scattered by the particles encounters diffraction points multiple times before reaching the detector, which in turn increases the apparent scattering angle. To overcome this issue, LD PSAs require appropriate sampling and dilution systems, which increase capital investments and operational costs. Another approach is to apply multiple scattering correction models together with the optical models to compute the PSD. A large number of algorithms for multiple scattering correction can be found in the literature.[12][13][14] However, these algorithms typically require implementing a complex correction, which increases the computation time and is often not suitable for online measurements.[14] An alternative approach to compute the PSD without the use of optical models and complex correction factors is to apply machine learning (ML) techniques.[15]\nPaints and Coatings\n \nEdit\n\n\nTypically, paints and coatings are subjected to multiple rounds of particle size analysis, as the particle size of the individual components influences parameters as diverse as hint strength, hiding power, gloss, viscosity, stability and weather resistance.[16]\nMining and Building Materials\n \nEdit\n\n\nThe size of materials being processed in an operation is very important. Having oversize material being conveyed will cause damage to equipment and slow down production. Particle-size analysis also helps the effectiveness of SAG Mills when crushing material.\nIn the building industry, the particle size can directly affect the strength of the final material, as it observed for cement.[17] Two of the most used techniques used for the particle size characterization of minerals are sieving and laser diffraction. These techniques are faster and cheaper compared to image-based techniques.\n\nFood and Beverages Industry\n \nEdit\n\n\nThe optimization of the particle size distribution facilitates the pumping, mixing and transportation of foodstuff. Particle size analysis is usually done with any milled food, such as coffee, flour, cocoa powder. It is especially helpful with chocolate quality to ensure there is a consistent taste and feeling when eaten. Furthermore, in the case of food emulsions, particle size analysis is relevant to predict stability and shelf-life, and optimize homogenization.[18]\nAgriculture\n \nEdit\n\n\nThe gradation of soils, or soil texture, affects water and nutrient holding and drainage capabilities. For sand-based soils, particle size can be the dominant characteristic affecting soil performances and hence crop. Sieving has long been the technique of choice for soil texture analysis, although laser diffraction instruments are increasingly used as they considerably speed up the analytical process, and provide highly reproducible results.[19]Particle size analysis in the agriculture industry is paramount because unwanted materials will contaminate products if they are not detected. By having an automated particle size analyzer, companies can closely monitor their processes.\n\nForestry\n \nEdit\n\n\nWood particles used to make various types of products rely on particle-size analysis to maintain high quality standards. By doing so, companies reduce waste and become more productive.\n\nAggregates\n \nEdit\n\n\nHaving properly sized particles allow aggregate companies to create long-lasting roads and other products. Particle size analysis is also routinely conducted on bitumen emusions to predict their stability and their behavior.[20]\nBiology\n \nEdit\n\n\nParticle size analyzers are used also in biology to measure protein aggregation.\n\n Particle size distribution of antiviral vaccines subjected to cold-chain disruptions, analyzed by Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS)DLS is a particularly appreciated technique for the characterization of nanoparticles designed for drug delivery, such as vaccines. DLS instruments are for instance part of the quality control process for mRNA vaccines formulated in lipid nanoparticle carriers.[21] \n\nSelecting the most appropriate technique for size analysis\n \nEdit\n\n\nThere is a large number of methods for the determination of particle size, and it is important to acknowledge that these different methods are not expected to give identical results. The size of a particle depends on the method used for its measurement, and it is important to choose the method that is most relevant to the application.\nThe \"See also\" section covers many of these techniques. In most of them, the particle size is inferred from a measurement of, for example: light scattering; electrical resistance; particle motion, rather than a direct measurement of particle diameter. This enables rapid measurement of a particle size distribution by an instrument, but does require some form of calibration or assumptions regarding the nature of the particles. Most often this includes the assumption of spherical particles, thus giving a result which is an equivalent spherical diameter. Thus, it is usual for measured particle size distributions to be different when comparing the results between different equipment. The most appropriate method to use is normally the one where the method is aligned to the end use of the data.\nFor example, to choose whether a chemical compound should be measured by dynamic light scattering or laser diffraction, one generally considers the expected size range, the sample type (liquid or solid), the amount of sample available, the chemical stability, as well its application field.[22] If designing a sedimentation vessel, then a sedimentation technique for sizing is most relevant. However, this approach is often not possible, and an alternative technique must be used. An online Expert system to assist in the selection (and elimination) of particle size analysis equipment has been developed.[23]\nSee also\n \nEdit\n\n\nSieving\nSieve analysis\nLaser diffraction analysis\nSedimentation\nElutriation\nMicroscope counting\nCoulter counter\nDynamic light scattering\nImaging Particle Analysis\nAerosol mass spectrometry\nObscuration SPOSReferences\n \nEdit\n\n\n\n^ Valsangkar, A. J. Principles, methods and applications of particle size analysis.\nCan. Geotech. J. 29, 1006 (1992).\n\n^ Stetefeld, J., McKenna, S. A. & Patel, T. R. Dynamic light scattering: a practical\nguide and applications in biomedical sciences. Biophysical Rev. 8, 409–427\n(2016).\n\n^ Jump up to: a b Xu, Renliang (2015-02-01). \"Light scattering: A review of particle characterization applications\". Particuology. 18: 11–21. doi:10.1016/j.partic.2014.05.002. ISSN 1674-2001.\n\n^ \"Iso 22412:2017\".\n\n^ Kim, A. et al. Validation of size estimation of nanoparticle tracking analysis on\npolydisperse macromolecule assembly. Sci. Rep. 9, 2639 (2019).\n\n^ Kim, A., Bernt, W. & Cho, N. J. Improved size determination by nanoparticle tracking analysis: influence of recognition radius. Anal. Chem. 91, 9508–9515\n(2019).\n\n^ Kashkanova, Anna D.; Blessing, Martin; Gemeinhardt, André; Soulat, Didier; Sandoghdar, Vahid (2022). \"Precision size and refractive index analysis of weakly scattering nanoparticles in polydispersions\". Nature Methods. 19 (5): 586–593. doi:10.1038/s41592-022-01460-z. PMC 9119850. PMID 35534632.\n\n^ Blott, S. J. et al. Particle size analysis by laser diffraction. Geological Society,\nLondon, Special Publications. 232, 63–73 (2004).\n\n^ Vargas-Ubera, J., Aguilar, J. F. & Gale, D. M. Reconstruction of particle-size distributions from light-scattering patterns using three inversion methods. Appl. Opt. 46, 124–132 (2007).\n\n^ Ye, Z. & Jiang, X. P. Wang, Z. C. Measurements of particle size distribution based on Mie scattering theory and Markov chain inversion algorithm. J. Softw. 7, 2309–2316 (2012).\n\n^ Hermannsson, Pétur G.; Vannahme, Christoph; Smith, Cameron L. C.; Sørensen, Kristian T.; Kristensen, Anders (2015). \"Refractive index dispersion sensing using an array of photonic crystal resonant reflectors\". Applied Physics Letters. 107 (6): 061101. Bibcode:2015ApPhL.107f1101H. doi:10.1063/1.4928548. S2CID 62897708.\n\n^ Gomi, H. Multiple scattering correction in the measurement of particle size and number density by the diffraction method. Appl. Opt. 25, 3552–3558 (1986).\n\n^ Quirantes, A., Arroyo, F. & Quirantes-Ros, J. Multiple light scattering by spherical particle systems and its dependence on concentration: a T-matrix study. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 240, 78–82 (2001).\n\n^ Jump up to: a b Wei, Y. H., Shen, J. Q. & Yu, H. T. Numerical calculation of multiple scattering with the layer model. Particuology 7, 76–82 (2009).\n\n^ Hussain, R., Noyan, M. A., Woyessa, G. et al. An ultra-compact particle size analyser using a CMOS image sensor and machine learning. Light Sci Appl 9, 21 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-020-0255-6\n\n^ \"The Importance of Particle Size in Liquid Coatings\". www.pfonline.com. Retrieved 2022-05-25.\n\n^ Zhang, Y. M.; Napier-Munn, T. J. (1995-06-01). \"Effects of particle size distribution, surface area and chemical composition on Portland cement strength\". Powder Technology. 83 (3): 245–252. doi:10.1016/0032-5910(94)02964-P. ISSN 0032-5910.\n\n^ Ransmark, Eva; Svensson, Birgitta; Svedberg, Ingrid; Göransson, Anders; Skoglund, Tomas (2019-09-01). \"Measurement of homogenisation efficiency of milk by laser diffraction and centrifugation\". International Dairy Journal. 96: 93–97. doi:10.1016/j.idairyj.2019.04.011. ISSN 0958-6946. S2CID 155705640.\n\n^ Yang, Yang; Wang, Lijuan; Wendroth, Ole; Liu, Baoyuan; Cheng, Congcong; Huang, Tingting; Shi, Yangzi (March 2019). \"Is the Laser Diffraction Method Reliable for Soil Particle Size Distribution Analysis?\". Soil Science Society of America Journal. 83 (2): 276–287. Bibcode:2019SSASJ..83..276Y. doi:10.2136/sssaj2018.07.0252. ISSN 0361-5995. S2CID 134971922.\n\n^ Wang, Fazhou; Liu, Yunpeng; Zhang, Yunhua; Hu, Shuguang (2012-03-01). \"Experimental study on the stability of asphalt emulsion for CA mortar by laser diffraction technique\". Construction and Building Materials. 28 (1): 117–121. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.07.059. ISSN 0950-0618.\n\n^ Mao, Qunying; Xu, Miao; He, Qian; Li, Changgui; Meng, Shufang; Wang, Yiping; Cui, Bopei; Liang, Zhenglun; Wang, Junzhi (2021-05-18). \"COVID-19 vaccines: progress and understanding on quality control and evaluation\". Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy. 6 (1): 199. doi:10.1038/s41392-021-00621-4. ISSN 2059-3635. PMC 8129697. PMID 34006829.\n\n^ \"Particle size analysis methods: Dynamic light scattering vs. laser diffraction :: Anton Paar Wiki\". Anton Paar. Retrieved 2022-05-25.\n\n^ Expert system for equipment selection"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","Bill Gates' Plan to Turn Humans into Walking WiFi with Hydrogel Technology by 2027"],["url","https://rumble.com/v2n752e-bill-gates-plan-to-turn-humans-into-walking-wifi-with-hydrogel-technology-b.html"],["summary","Hydrogel being used by Bill Gates Foundation & Mastercard on people of West Africa to connect their funds through the vax in their body, and they are using for predictive policing"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","地球正義聯盟～資料館"],["url","https://t.me/EarthJusticeLeague_DataLibrary"],["summary","地球正義聯盟延伸的資料收藏館\t\t地球正義聯盟～\thttps://t.me/joinchat/fNNUUkcLo2gzMThk\t\t以馬地平資料館～\thttps://t.me/EmanuelFlatEarthLibrary\n"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","Telegram"],["url","https://t.me/c/1248270344/468127"],["summary","\n"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]}]}],["text","\n六六六獸印的時候快到了\n\n🔔人類將變成會行走的WiFi🔔\n《#注射疫苗🟰#大型社會實驗》\n#未針人將會遭受怎樣的對待..？\n參考 #尼日利亞 7300萬 #無針者\n#SIM卡被註銷被踢出社群..\n\n#比爾蓋茨計劃在 #2027年，利用 #水凝膠技術，將人類變成 #會行走的WiFi收發器。\n\n#蓋茨基金會和 #萬事達卡，在 #西非人民身上使用 #水凝膠，通過體內的疫苗，連接他們的 #個人資金，並用於 #預測性警務測試。\n\nDr. #CarrieMadej：\n\n比爾蓋茨說的就是這種技術了。\n在這項技術裡的水凝膠(#HydroGel)和 #粒徑分析(#AnalyticParticle)是一種 #藥物傳遞。\n\n就如他們所說，在他們的研究中，既然這些 #實驗品(#已注射疫苗的人)已經存在了，他們就索性繼續對這些「實驗品」進行實驗到底，並對他們進行 #監視和預測性的 #警務測試。\n\n這意味著，監視人們，從 #生物傳感器上收集所有的數據，然後上傳到一台 #超級電腦上。再加上他們擁有的 #人工智能程式組合。在數據整合後進行預測，這意味著，他們將會通過超級電腦對其進行分析，看看你是否適合做壞人。然後，如果你在他們的定義中，不是一個他們眼中的好人的話….\n\n「假如你還未接種過疫苗，\n 你就會 #被系統鎖定！」\n\n最近在 #尼日利亞，比爾蓋茨其中的一個項目，7300萬名 #無針者的 #SIM卡和 #手機聯繫被切斷了，這意味著成為了 #被社會遺棄的人。\n\n就這樣你可以看到他們的計劃了。人們可能會說，這些發生在 #非洲的事，與我何干？\n\n比爾蓋茨說過，一旦計劃在一個試點實驗完善之後，他們就會把計劃推廣到所有發達國家，進行同樣的做法。\n\n這不僅僅是他，#世界經濟論壇、#聯合國、#達沃斯，所有這些人在談論的，都不僅僅是「#2030議程」而是「2027年」。\n\n他們延長了死線，以人工方式，把這個星球上的每個人都連接起來「通過Wi-Fi連接人們的身體」人類將成為一台 #會行走的WiFi 電腦。\n\n到最後「#人類與網絡，長期處於連線狀態」這已經不單是關於 #人權問題，且還是一個 #人口販賣的問題。\n\n〰️〰️〰️〰️\nHydro Gel (水凝膠)\nhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogel \n\nAnalytic Particle (粒徑分析)\nhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_size_analysis \n\nhttps://rumble.com/v2n752e-bill-gates-plan-to-turn-humans-into-walking-wifi-with-hydrogel-technology-b.html \n\n➰➰➰➰➰➰➰➰➰\n(Uncle字幕｜Juliet｜以馬)\n地球正義聯盟～資料館\nhttps://t.me/EarthJusticeLeague_DataLibrary \n地球正義聯盟\nhttps://t.me/c/1248270344/468127 "],["id","3ity6cx1icjfd"],["createdAt","2023-09-23T12:37:09.215Z"]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",1],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",1],["user",null],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","三立新聞網 | 2017年新制上路　完整懶人包在這"],["url","https://today.line.me/TW/article/f006cd86d84a02217cd67cef6d0b29771f21625fdc655fa6389a0f0a69164a82?openExternalBrowser=1"],["summary","CP name\n \n 三立新聞網\n \n Upload Date & Time\n 發布時間 2017年1月1日07:30\n Update Date & Time\n 更新時間 2017年1月1日07:39\n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n 生活中心／綜合報導距離2017年剩下不到一周，尤其「一例一休」率先在12月23日實施，不少民眾也開始關心元旦後有哪些新制上路，趕快來看看《三立新聞網》為您整理的各項新制，避免不小心挨罰或影響自身權益。《勞基法》修正草案★基本工資月薪由2萬零8元，調升為2萬1009元。時薪由126元，調升至133元。★「一例一休」加班費計算工作日：前兩小時每小時1又1/3薪資，第三小時起每小時1又2/3薪資。休息日：前兩小時每小時1又1/3薪資，第三小時起每小時1又2/3薪資，未滿4小時以4小時計算。例假日：工資加倍再補休1天，未滿8小時以1天計算。國定假日：工資加倍，未滿8小時以1天計算。責任制人員也適用一例一休。★特休假年資滿6個月、未滿1年，增3天。年資2至3年，增至10天。年資3至5年，增至14天。年資5至10年，增至15天。10年以上，每年加一日，最多至30天。年度終了未休畢可折現。★刪除7天國定假1／2、3／29、9／28、10／25、10／31、11／12、12／25。《交通篇》★乘載孕婦之小型車不受國道高乘載管制12月31日起（2017元旦連假），車內未滿3人但有孕婦乘載（含自行開車或搭乘），將不受國道高乘載管制，此政策包含周日國5北上常態高乘載，用路人需準備孕期內之孕婦健康手冊、附照片身分證明等2項證件，以備檢查。★汽、機車配置晝行燈2017年1月1日起，新式機車出廠販售須配備「晝行燈」，2018年起將套用到新式小客車、小貨車，2019年則是新式大客車、大貨車及所有新出廠的機車，2020、2021年所有新出廠的小型車、大型車都必須配有晝行燈。★機車第6期污染排放、噪音管制標準依據交通工具空氣污染物排放標準第6條：加嚴新車型審驗、新車檢驗驗及使用中車輛驗驗管制標準值。延長排放控制系統之保證期限及里程，維護空氣品質。配備車上診斷系統，提醒使用者車輛發生異常時儘快回廠檢修，以維護空氣品質。強制銷售量達1萬輛以上之廠商，當年度須生產或進口一定數量之惰轉熄火（idle-stop）功能機車或複合動力電動機車或電動機車等綠能車輛，維護空氣品質。依據機動車輛噪音管制標準第3條：新增定速噪音、額外噪音測試（ASEP）及消音器耐久等測試。加嚴新車型審驗及新車抽驗原地噪音管制標準值。★加重酒駕違規者負擔若駕駛人因道路交通管理條例第35條規定吊銷駕照者，除在一定時間內不得重新考照，須再經醫療機構完成酒癮或酒精戒除治療，以減少酒駕情況。目前酒駕違規需參加4小時「酒駕違規班」，累犯者則須參加6小時的「酒駕累犯專班」，未來將分別延長至6小時、12小時，最慢2017年下半年開始實施，相關講習費用也將改為由違規人自行負擔。★高齡駕照75歲以上老人需通過體檢及認知測驗，才會核發有效期限為2年的短期駕照。★汽車用輪胎汽車用輪胎製造日期超過6年，不得在市面上販售或進口。《生活篇》★食安食品正名：鱈魚、巧克力、薏仁、太白粉，應如實標示內容物，違者最重罰400萬元。量販業廚餘：公司資本總額達2千500萬元以上的超級市場及零售式量販業，2017年3月1日開始，要上網申報廢棄物清理流向。★飲水用水龍頭鉛溶出量需不大於5μg/L（5微克/公升，即5ppb），水龍頭材料含鉛量也不得超過0.25%，且應標示「LF」（Lead Free，無鉛)，並於外包裝標示「飲水用」。★環保強制回收4種供照明使用的LED照明光源。針對鈕扣型電池的汞及鎘含量進行管制。實施新制冷氣節能標準CSPF（冷氣季節性能因數）。★電子帳單水費優惠每期水費減收3元★中華郵政停辦15國（地區）國際水陸函件、停辦韓國、港澳的國際水陸包裹出口業務，調漲14國（地區）國際水陸包裹資費。★健保未經轉診至醫學中心看病，門診部分負擔調高到60至100元，經轉診者則減少40元。兒科醫師協助施打1歲以下兒童公費疫苗，每次可得補助100元。★國民旅遊卡公務員國旅卡補助其中一半強制用於團體旅遊，3月起擬開放不限團體旅遊。★空氣品質管制台灣西部列為PM2.5三級空氣品質防制。★房屋出租出租房屋應用符合「應記載及不得記載事項規定」的契約，若違反規定最高將可處30萬元罰鍰。★台北市公車932個公車站、1150座候車亭全面禁菸，違者最高開罰1萬元。《稅務篇》★綜所稅免稅額一般免稅額調高至8萬8000元，70歲長者調高至13萬2000元。調高課稅級距、退職所得定額免稅級距。★貨物稅電動車免徵貨物稅至2021年12月31日，另外補貼電動重型機車近1萬4千元。★證交稅公司債、金融債、債券ETF等商品，停徵證交稅至2026年底。★跨境電商營業稅來台營業須辦理簡易登記。勞務每月4萬、年銷售額48萬元以上，達繳稅門檻。★網購關稅進口次數頻繁者，不適用3000元以下免稅規定。《保險、退休金》★勞工保險費率由10%提高至10.5%（含就業保險）。★國民年金保險費率由從8%漲至8.5%。★勞退新制年滿60歲、年資滿15年，退休金可自選一次領或月領。★壽險個人傷害險危險發生率降到萬分之2.4543。壽險新契約責任準備金利率2017年起調降。★健保投保金額全民健康保險投保金額下限修正為2萬1009元。《金融篇》★上市、上櫃公司實收資本額50億元以上，需編企業社會責任報告書（CSR）。實收資本額20億元以上，需設審計委員會。★台股ETF可採現金申購贖回機制。★反洗錢銀行需設立防制洗錢專責單位，並配置足夠人員。★匯款3萬元以上的跨境匯款，銀行需加強查驗客戶身分、股東結構。身心障礙者若需跨行提款，每月三次免手續費。★房屋貸款財政部推出、由八大公股行庫承作的青年安心成家貸款，申請期限至今年底。但考量年輕人購屋需求，經立委提案後，財政部決定延長2年，報行政院核定通過，每戶額度仍為800萬元。★青年教育與就業儲蓄帳戶明年8月起試辦3年，以高中職應屆畢業生為對象，預估每年5000人，每月提撥1萬元，3年後可全數提領36萬元。★兒童與少年未來教育及發展專戶明年起針對低收入戶、中低收入戶及長期安置兒童成立教育發展帳戶，家長每人每年最高存入1萬5000元，政府相對提撥1萬5000元，合計最高3萬元，1年補助1萬名。\n \n \n 查看原始文章"],["topImageUrl","https://obs.line-scdn.net/0m0e340e6a1b701230606e7511742161206a6f646f2410291a137b3d3979793d626a333c3d73303c5e392832313d/w580"],["error",null]]}]}],["text","https://today.line.me/TW/article/f006cd86d84a02217cd67cef6d0b29771f21625fdc655fa6389a0f0a69164a82?openExternalBrowser=1"],["id","5478515575356-rumor"],["createdAt","2017-01-09T15:39:00.000Z"]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",2],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",1],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_56sY5We8TIfM_62-ZyFHMJyWUQ0kpjIaGPxhi4bM83U"],["name","盡職認真的阿里山陸斯恩"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","Inhibition of SARS-CoV 3C-like Protease Activity by Theaflavin-3,3′-digallate (TF3)"],["url","https://bit.ly/2t6y7ij"],["summary","Chia-Nan Chen,1,* Coney P. C. Lin,1,* Kuo-Kuei Huang,1 Wei-Cheng Chen,1 Hsin-Pang Hsieh,1 Po-Huang Liang,2 and John T.-A. Hsu1,3,†This article has been cited by other articles in PMC.AbstractSARS-CoV is the causative agent of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). The virally encoded 3C-like protease (3CLPro) has been presumed critical for the viral replication of SARS-CoV in infected host cells. In this study, we screened a natural product library consisting of 720 compounds for inhibitory activity against 3CLPro. Two compounds in the library were found to be inhibitive: tannic acid (IC50 = 3 µM) and 3-isotheaflavin-3-gallate (TF2B) (IC50 = 7 µM). These two compounds belong to a group of natural polyphenols found in tea. We further investigated the 3CLPro-inhibitory activity of extracts from several different types of teas, including green tea, oolong tea, Puer tea and black tea. Our results indicated that extracts from Puer and black tea were more potent than that from green or oolong teas in their inhibitory activities against 3CLPro. Several other known compositions in teas were also evaluated for their activities in inhibiting 3CLPro. We found that caffeine, (—)-epigallocatechin gallte (EGCg), epicatechin (EC), theophylline (TP), catechin (C), epicatechin gallate (ECg) and epigallocatechin (EGC) did not inhibit 3CLPro activity. Only theaflavin-3,3′-digallate (TF3) was found to be a 3CLPro inhibitor. This study has resulted in the identification of new compounds that are effective 3CLPro inhibitors.Keywords: natural products, 3CLPro, black tea, TF2B, TF3IntroductionSevere acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is caused by a newly discovered coronavirus, SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) (1,2). From November 1, 2002 to June 18, 2003, a total of 8465 probable SARS cases were reported to the World Health Organization from 29 countries, and 801 people died from this disease. The case–fatality proportion was ∼10%. Although the spread of the virus has been averted, the re-emergence of SARS is still in question (3–6).Like other related coronaviruses, SARS-CoV is an enveloped virus containing single-stranded RNA of positive polarity. Coronaviruses have the largest genomes known (∼30 kb) among RNA viruses [7]. The genome of SARS-CoV comprises one open reading frame (ORF) encoding two overlapping replicase polyproteins, polyprotein-1a (pp1a, ∼450 kDa) and poplyprotein-1ab (pp1ab, ∼750 kDa), responsible for virus replication (7). The rest of the genome comprises at least five ORFs encoding structural proteins and other genes with putative functions (8,9). Proteolytic processing, especially the processing of replicase polyproteins, is one of the crucial steps in the life cycle of many positive-stranded RNA viruses, including coronaviruses. All coronaviruses encode a papline-like protease (PLP) and a chymotrypsin-like (3CLPro) protease for proteolytic procession during virus maturation (10). Studies on other coronaviruses have shown that the PLP protein cleaves at no less than two sites on the pp1a polyprotein and that the 3CLPro protease cleaves at least 11 inter-domain sites on the pp1a and pp1ab polyproteins [7]. Thus, the 3CLPro protease of SARS-CoV has been considered as an important molecular target for anti-SARS-CoV drug discovery and developments. In this study, after screening of a natural product library and further confirmation, we found that SARS-3CLPro could be inhibited by compounds that are abundant in teas. We also examined crude extracts from various teas and a panel of representative natural products in teas for their inhibitory activities against SARS-3CLPro.MethodsPreparation of SARS-CoV 3CLProTotal RNA extracted from a throat swab of a SARS patient was provided by the Center for Disease Control (CDC), Taipei, Taiwan. All RNA samples were handled under bio-safety level 2 (BSL2) regulations. Two primers, 5′-GGCGGAATTCGCCTCTACCAACCACCACAGA-3′ and 5′-GGCGGAATTCA AAGCATCCAATGATGAGTGCC-3′, were used for reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction (RT–PCR) to synthesize the cDNA of SARS-3CLPro using Ready-to-Go RT–PCR Beads (Amersham Biosciences, Piscataway, NJ) according to the manufacturer's protocol. The PCR cycle used for the amplification of cDNA of SARS-3CLPro was as follows: 94°C for 5 min, 25 cycles of 94°C for 1 min, 58°C for 3 min, 72°C for 2 min and 72°C for 10 min. A full-length 3CLPro of SARS coronavirus was successfully expressed in Escherichia coli as a glutathione S-transferase (GST) fusion protein. Following cleavage by thrombin, 3CLPro was purified to homogeneity. A 15mer peptide with sequence H2N-SITSAVLQSGFRKMA-COOH corresponding to an autocleavage site of the SARS-3CLPro was synthesized and used for protease cleavage activity assay. The highly purified protein was shown by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis to exhibit proteolytic activity in trans.Compound CollectionThe Pure Natural Products Library used to screen for 3CLPro inhibition was obtained from MicroSource Discovery Systems, Inc., Gaylordsville, CT. It consists of a unique collection of 720 pure natural products. The collection includes simple and complex oxygen heterocycles, alkaloids, sequiterpenes, diterpenes, pentacyclic triterpenes, sterols and many other diverse representatives. Initially, 10 different compounds were pooled, and the mixtures were tested for their inhibitory activities against SARS-3CLPro. Positive pools were then deconvoluted and single pure compounds that were able to inhibit >50% of peptide cleavage at 10 µM were scored as hits. Other compounds were obtained from Sigma (St Louis, MO). Theaflavin (TF1), TF2 [a mixture of TF-2A (theaflavin-3-gallate) and TF-2B (theaflavin-3′-gallate)] and theaflavin-3,3′-digallate (TF3) were kind gifts from Dr Yu-Chih Liang, School of Medical Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.Preparation of Crude Extracts from Oolong Tea, Green Tea, Black Tea and Puer TeaTea liquors were prepared from oolong tea, green tea, black tea and Puer tea (also called pu-er or pu-erh) samples as 2% (w/v) tea solutions. The water extracts of four different types of tea leaves were prepared by shaking for 10 min in boiling hot water in thermal flasks. The extracts were then filtered through a Millex-GS 0.22 µm filter (Millipore, Malsheim, France) to remove particulate matter. The water extracts were then evaporated under reduced pressure to obtain viscous masses. These materials were evaluated for their inhibitory activities against SARS-3CLPro.Inhibition of Protease Activity of SARS-3CLPro by HPLC AssayA general cysteine protease inhibitor, N-ethylmaleimide (NEM, protease inhibitor as positive control), was obtained from Sigma (St Louis, MO). This compound was tested for its inhibitory activities against SARS-3CLPro in the peptide cleavage assay. The activities of the proteases were measured in the absence or presence of different concentrations of these general inhibitors. The enzyme (2 µM) was pre-incubated with chemicals for 30 min. Peptide was then added at 100 µM to the reaction, and mixtures were incubated at 37°C for 1 h. The potency of the inhibitors was calculated. The HPLC analysis condition is: a C18 RP guard column (250 × 4.6 mm × 5 µm, Agilent Zorbax Extend). This method was chosen because it gave the best resolution among several methods that were tested. The column temperature was ambient, and the elution (0.8 ml/min) was performed using a solvent system comprising solvents A [10 MM NH4OAc, 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA)] and B (acetonitrile, 0.1% TFA) mixed using a gradient starting with 100% A, linearly decreasing to 10% A in 8 min, to 100% A in 16 min, and held at 100% A for 23 min. The injection volume was 40 ml. The UV detector was set at 214 nm.Proteolytic Activity of SARS-3CLPro by Fluorogenic Substrate Peptide AssayThe development of a fluorescent protease activity assay has been reported previously (7). The enhanced fluorescence due to cleavage of the fluorogenic substrate peptide (Dabcyl-KTSAVLQSGFRKME-Edans) catalyzed by the protease was monitored at 538 nm with excitation at 355 nm using a fluorescence plate reader (Fluoroskan Ascent from ThermoLabsystems, Sweden). The fluorimetric assay was used to determine the IC50 of identified inhibitors on SARS 3CLPro activity. The protease was stored in the buffer containing 12 mM Tris–HCl (pH 7.5), 120 mM NaCl, 0.1 mM EDTA, 7.5 mM 2-mercaptoethanol and 1 mM dithiothreitol (DTT) at −70°C before use.ResultsScreening of a 720 Compound Library Against 3CLPro Activity by HPLC AssayThe spectrum collection, a library of 720 drugs and natural products, was screened for 3CLPro inhibitory activity. A flowchart of the screening procedure is shown in Fig. 1. Initially, 10 different compounds were pooled, and the 72 mixtures were then tested for their inhibitory activities against SARS-3CLPro. The HPLC assay was used in the primary screening because many compounds in the library are chromogenic. Single compounds in the positive pools were then evaluated for their activities. Two compounds, tannic acid and TF2B, were found to be active against 3CLPro (Fig. 2). Tannic acid is a water-soluble polyphenol present in plant food such as tea, red wine, beer and nuts. In addition, tea polyphenols and many tannin components are thought to be anticarcinogenic (14,15).Flowchart of the screening of the compound library and tea compositions.Inhibition of 3CL Pro activity by HPLC assay. Injection of 40 µl of incubation samples for C18 reverse phase column analysis. The substrate or product fragment peaks were analyzed by HPLC with UV absorbance detection at 214 nm. The HPLC system is described in Methods.Evaluation of Tea Extracts and Pure Components from Teas for Their Inhibition of 3CLPro ActivitySince many other polyphenols related to tannic acid and TF2B are also present in various kinds of teas, we decided to examine the inhibition of activity by various tea extracts and several well known pure ingredients present in teas. Thus, water extracts from different types of teas were prepared and evaluated for their inhibitory activities against 3CLPro. As shown in Table 1, extracts from black and Puer teas inhibited 3CLPro activity while those from green or oolong teas did not. We further tested the possible involvement of several known ingredients present in teas, including caffeine, theophylline, catechin (C), epigallocatechin (EGC), (—)-epigallocatechin gallte (EGCg), epicatechin (EC), epicatechin gallate (ECg), TF1, TF2, TF2B, tannic acid and TF3. As shown in Table 1, the results showed that methylxanthine (caffeine and theophylline) did not influence 3CLPro activity; catechins, including C, EC, ECg, EGC and EGCg, present in green tea (unfermented) and oolong tea (partial fermented) also did not inhibit 3CLPro activity. Our results indicated that tannic acid, TF2B and TF3 are 3CLPro inhibitors as revealed by the fluorogenic substrate assay (Fig. 3). TF2A was not tested because of its unavailability.Inhibition of 3CLPro activity by fluorogenic substrate peptide assay. Inhibition of 3CLPro activity by tannic acid, TF1, TF2B, TF3 and EGCg. The enhanced fluorescence due to cleavage of the fluorogenic substrate peptide catalyzed by the protease was monitored at 538 nm with exicitation at 355 nm using a fluorescence plate reader. The determining assay is described in Methods.Table 1Inhibition of SARS 3CLPro activity by natural productsCompound libraryIC50 (µM)3-Isotheaflavin-3-gallate (TF2B)7Tannic acid3Tea extractIC50 (µg/ml)Oolong tea125Green tea125Black tea70Puer tea25Other compositions in green teaIC50 (µM)Caffeine100Theophylline100Catechin (C)100Epigallocatechin (EGC)100(–)-Epigallocatechin gallte (EGCg)100Epicatechin (EC)100Epicatechin gallate (ECg)100Theaflavin composition in black teaIC50 (µM)Theaflavin (TF1)56Theaflavin-3-gallate,TF-2a and43Theaflavin-3′ -gallate,TF-2b mixture (TF2)Theaflavin-3,3′ -digallate (TF3)9.5TF2B and TF3 as Potent Agents Against 3CLPro Inhibitory ActivityThe natural product screened library consisted of simple and complex oxygen heterocycles, alkaloids, sequiterpenes, diterpenes, pentacyclic triterpenes, sterols and many other diverse representatives. Numerous black tea polyphenols (especially those of TF1, TF2 and TF3) were found to inhibit 3CLPro. In black tea, TF3 was the most abundant (1.05%) followed by TF2A (0.34%), TF2B (0.11%) and TF1 (0.08%) (16). It is interesting to note that TF3 contained two gallate groups attached to the 3,3′ positions as shown in Fig. 4b. TF2A and TF2B, on the other hand, consisted of only one gallate group attached either to the 3 or the 3′ positions, respectively (Fig. 4b). In contrast, no gallate group was attached to TF1. Results in Table 1, indicating that the gallate group attached to the 3′ position to TF2B and TF3, might be important for interaction with the 3CLPro active site. EC, EGCg, ECG and EGC were much less active (IC50 ≥ 100 µM) than theaflavins.Chemical structures of tannic acid, catechins and TFs.DiscussionHuman coronaviruses (HCoVs) are major causes of upper respiratory tract illness in animals including humans. It has been demonstrated that a novel coronavirus causes SARS. The main protease, frequently called 3C-like protease (3CLPro), has been identified as an attractive drug target (17). Of the 720 natural products screened in this study, tannic acid (Fig. 4a) and TF2B were identified using the HPLC proteolytic assay to inhibit 50% of the proteolytic acitivity of 3CLPro at concentrations ≤10 µM. Both tannic acid and TF2B belong to the group of natural polyphenols found in teas. Low concentrations of tannic acid were found to inhibit proteases including tissue-type plasminogen activator, urokinase-type plasminogen activator and plasmin activity [13]. Over 300 different kinds of tea are now produced, but they are classified into three main forms: green tea is manufactured by drying fresh tea leaves, with emphasis on the prevention of oxidation of the tea polyphenols during the manufacturing process. In contrast, the manufacture of black tea is characterized by a high degree of fermentation, which produces a series of chemical condensations among the ingredients present in tea. Oolong tea is partially fermented, and the tea compositions are more similar to those found in green tea (18). In evaluating different types of tea, we found that extracts from several different types of tea, including Puer and black tea, could inhibit 3CLPro activity while green or oolong tea could not. However, the chemical composition in Puer tea is very complex and it is difficult to isolate pure ingredients for structural identification. Purification and identification of Puer tea ingredients should be carried out in a separate study.We next examined whether other well-known ingredients present in tea could also inhibit 3CLPro activity. We found that methylxanthine (caffeine and theophylline) and catechins (EGCg, EC, C, ECg and EGC) were not able to inhibit 3CLPro activity at concentrations up to 100 µM (Table 1). However, TF1, TF2 and TF3 were more potent 3CLPro inhibitors than catechins in green tea. During the fermentation step in the production of black tea, most of the catechins are oxidized and condensed into theaflavins through dimerization and into thearubigins through polymerization. Green tea contains ∼30% of catechins (dry mass base) while black tea contains ∼9% of catechins and 4% of theaflavins (19). In another study, Leung et al. (16) reported that TF3 was the most abundant (1.05%) theaflavin in black tea followed by TF2A (0.34%), TF2B (0.11%) and TF1 (0.08%). Tannic acid is a class of polyphenolic in plants but the quantification of its levels in green or black tea is difficult because tannic acid constitutes a wide range of polymers with mol. wts of 500–3000 Da.It is interesting to note that TF2B and TF3 are more potent inhibitors of 3CLPro than TF1 (Table 1). Unlike TF2B and TF3, TF1 does not contain a gallate group (Fig. 4b). Thus, the addition of a gallate group attached at the 39 position to TF2B and TF3 might be important for their inhibitory activity against 3CLPro. These results suggest that TF2B and TF3 might be good starting points for the design of more active inhibitors for the 3CLPro encoded by SARS-CoV.Finally, this study has identified three compounds (TF2B, TF3 and tannic acid) that are effective 3CLPro inhibitors (IC50 ≤10 µM). These compounds are abundant in the extract of black tea (16,19). Black tea is a popular beverage in the world. Results from this study warrant further investigation to examine the effect of these natural products in inhibition of SARS-CoV replication in cell culture. Clark et al. reported that theaflavins extracted from black tea were able to neutralize bovine coronavirus and rotavirus infections (20). Thus, it will be very interesting to evaluate, in a separate study, whether drinking black tea can prevent or alleviate the infection of an enteric form of coronavirus since SARS-CoV is known to actively replicate in the intestinal tract (21).AcknowledgmentsWe thank Dr Tzong-Der Way for providing excellent technical support. This work was supported in part by funds and facilities of NHRI of Taiwan and by Grants NSC92-2751-B-400-006-Y to X.C and J.T.A.H. and NSC92-2751-B-001-012-Y to P.H.L. from the National Science Council, Taiwan.References1. Ksiazek TG, Erdman D, Goldsmith CS, Zaki SR, Peret T, Emery S, et al. A novel coronavirus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome. 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[PubMed] [Google Scholar]"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","インフルエンザ予防に効果的！鳥取大学と産官学で研究開発。科学的に確認された紅茶の力｜澤井珈琲 - ものくろぼっくす"],["url","https://bit.ly/3aOJ3Ci"],["summary","抗インフルエンザ寒さが厳しい毎日です。この寒い冬、やっかいなのがインフルエンザです。予防接種での対策も大切ですが、毎日の手洗い・うがい・マスクの徹底が一番です。受験シーズンです。また、仕事も年明け・年度末に向けての大切な時期。受験生をはじめ学生さん、多忙なビジネスマンの皆さん、インフルエンザの予防に頭を悩ませているのではないでしょうか？。すごい紅茶が登場しました。大学と県研究機関が「抗インフルエンザ作用」を学術的に確認した紅茶です。まずは飲んでみた「抗インフルエンザ作用」を持つ紅茶はこちらです。早速、1本飲んでみました。口にしたとき、「あれ」と思いました。「普通の紅茶だ」そう、勝手に”くすりのように独特の味”があると思い込んでいました。かすかな甘みと濃厚なリーフの味です。というより「おいしい！」いや、これかなりいい感じですよ。1つ280mlと少し少ないなと思っていましたが、少し”とろみ”のある、とても濃いリーフの味、十二分に楽しめました。一気に飲み干すのはちょっとしんどい。それぐらい濃いです。でも後味はスッキリです。味は”午後の紅茶ストレート”を濃厚にした感じです。すいません、紅茶だから当然ですよね。例えが分かりにくく、ごめんなさい（特別な味はしないんです、そこが伝われば幸いです）。で、効果は？1つ飲んだからといって、インフルエンザ予防の効果は分からですし、飲み続けて、Alがインフルエンザにならなかったから”効果あり”ということにもならないです。ですが、美味しい。これは確かです。毎日の昼下がりに紅茶を楽しみながら、インフルエンザ予防効果が得られるならどうでしょう。こんな美味しい話は見逃せません。ちょっと値段が、毎日飲むのにどうかな？という気もします。しかし、インフルエンザになったときの辛さと比べると、予防できるならとも感じるのです。晩酌の量をちょっと減らせば、コストを穴埋めできます（アルコールも減って健康にいいですよ）。その効果はどのようにして確認されているのか？を調べました。産官学の成果このとろみ紅茶は澤井珈琲Beans＆Leafさんが商品開発され、販売されています。コーヒー豆と紅茶リーフの販売で有名な鳥取境港の会社さんです。楽天市場のコーヒー部門 1位！のショップさんです。鳥取大学医学部と（地独）鳥取県産業技術センターでの共同研究における成果にて、この開発した紅茶が抗インフルエンザ作用、ならびにポリフェノールの機能性を持つことが明らかになりました。研究では、インフルエンザ予防効果が「培養細胞レベル」で実証されました。この「とろみ紅茶」のインフルエンザウィルスの感染を抑える効果が確認されました。インフルエンザ予防に効果的なのです。研究結果この研究結果は大きく取り上げられました。(0684)鳥取県次世代・地域資源産業育成事業により開発された「とろみ紅茶：テアフラティー」に係る知事報告／報道提供資料／とりネット／鳥取県公式ホームページ景山　誠二 …昨今の健康ブームを反映して、各種健康飲料の市場は堅調な推移を見せている。・開発に当たって、鳥取大学医学部では、培養細胞によるテアフラビンの抗インフルエンザ作用の試験を実施。また、産業技術センター食品開発研究所では、高濃度のテアフラ　ビン黒紅茶の製造条件確立等の技術支援を行った。・これら関係機関の支援を受け、商品完成に至ったもの。澤井珈琲から健康茶「とろみ紅茶」新発売！/関西本部/とりネット/鳥取県公式サイト境港市の澤井珈琲が鳥取大学などと、抗インフルエンザ作用が見込める紅茶を開発しました。健康のために１度お試しくださいませ。株式会社澤井珈琲様から感謝状と寄付金を頂きました。：鳥取県産業技術センター株式会社澤井珈琲様はオリジナル商品であるコーヒーや紅茶飲料おいて、産業技術センター　食品開発研究所が技術支援し、「認知症」、「インフルエンザ」の予防が期待される機能性成分を製品中に保持させた商品の開発に成功しました。澤井珈琲～SAWAI COFFEEとろみ紅茶テアフラティー完成。(PDF)山陰中央テレビ/日本経済新聞/日本海新聞/山陰中央新報で紹介されました。(PDF)このように鳥取県が全面的に技術支援・バックアップを行っていました。鳥取大学医学部からのプレスリリースは見つけることができませんでしたが、これは研究成果の詳細は企業機密のため公表できないためと思われます。まとめ鳥取大学医学部と鳥取県産業技術センター、そして、澤井珈琲の共同研究で開発された紅茶を紹介しました、鳥取大学の研究にて、インフルエンザの予防効果が確認された紅茶です。かすかな甘みと濃厚なリーフの味で、「おいしい！」紅茶です。インフルエンザの効果の前に、美味しい紅茶ですからうれしい製品です。毎日の昼下がりに紅茶を楽しみながら、インフルエンザ予防効果が得られる素晴らしいものです。紅茶で気分をリフレッシュ、そして、インフルエンザの感染防止と、心と体の両方にすばらしい効果があります。この寒さ厳しい冬も万全の体調でがんばる忙しいあなた、受験シーズン真っ只中のあなたにおすすめします！。インフルエンザに負けない！そんなあなたにおすすめ！あわせて読みたい！紅茶がインフルエンザ予防に効果あり？その研究結果を読んでみた。 | BOX of Pictures共同研究の内容についてのレビュー記事です。"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","LINE Add Friend"],["url","https://goo.gl/RCjM0v"],["summary","Add LINE Friends via QR Code\nOpen the Friends tab in your LINE app, tap the add friends icon inthe top right, select \"QR code,\" and then scan this QR code.\n\nLearn more about LINE \nDownload now"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]}]}],["text","台灣紅茶大力推！👍🏻\n紅茶茶黃質抗冠狀病毒！\n紅茶所含的茶黃素(TF3)，不僅形成紅茶深邃的顏色，也能夠阻止冠狀病毒的複製。\n這篇論文是台灣中央研究院與國家衛生研究院發表的文章。屬於論文級別的報導，可信度高。\n論文出處：https://bit.ly/2t6y7ij\n\n日本產、官、學合作開發的とろみ紅茶，加入纖維提升2～3倍的茶黃素(TF3)，原來訴求抗流感病毒，現在用來抗冠狀病毒。😷\n原文連結：とろみ紅茶\nhttps://bit.ly/3aOJ3Ci\n\n歡迎加入\n「台茶檢驗」LINE@\nhttps://goo.gl/RCjM0v\n請按個讚喔！"],["id","84m776m17hh8"],["createdAt","2020-01-31T03:18:46.993Z"]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",1],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",1],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_5BoKz7P6tvCt4DUSlXL451VT_PLWreYIaMMQeNAQ6A0"],["name","適應能力強的坪林普利莫"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","2017最新传销资金盘名单！每次分享有可能会挽救一个家庭！"],["url","https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/Lsm-ospzKnFdfgVzL_xkeg"],["summary","小警之家中国200万警察都在关注关注本文综合来源：十点风云及网络，无需授权，可随意转载 12月27日，据江苏省南京市公安局官方微博“平安南京”消息，钱宝网实际控制人张小雷因涉嫌违法犯罪，于2017年12月26日，向南京市公安机关投案自首。目前南京市公安机关正在开展调查。近些年政府加大了对传销的打击力度，传销逐渐由异地拉人头的传统传销向互联网传销进化，庞氏骗局、集资诈骗与传销犯罪不断交织，由于涉及地域广、人员多、危害大。以下是由小编总结的在国内非常流行的传销组织，请各位朋友提高警惕，世上从来就没有这么轻松就赚大钱的事。防范网络传销，远离骗局，最根本的还是要克服贪欲，不要幻想“一夜暴富”。1、FutureNet（中文名：FN未来网）FutureNet号称公司位于欧洲波兰，成立四年多，全球设立有多家运营公司。业务遍布全球190多个国家，100多万付费会员，宣称利用互联网+大数据+虚拟货币+倍增的趋势，要将FuturoCoin（未来币）打造成未来世界三大数字货币之一。我们来看看这个吹的吊炸天的网站的模式：FN未来网的入门费分为10美金、25美金、50美金、100美金、500美金、1000美金6个级别，每层下面只能有三个人，一层3人，2层9人，3层27人，4层81人，5层243人，到10层59049人！投资185美金，满10层可以赚80万美金！从该模式的设计上来看，借鉴了维卡币的一些套路，该传销组织打着公排滑落、躺赢的旗号大肆进行拉人头的传销勾当，平台充值激活采用比特币充值操作，躲避资金监管，进行违法犯罪活动。FN未来网更是吹嘘自己在社交网站领域排名第一，你让facebook爸爸还怎么混？2、维卡币（目前国内主要犯罪团伙已被摧毁）投资进入维卡币账户的资金，需要等到八十二天以后才能交易，不仅如此，会员每天卖出的维卡币数量还有限制。投资后的交易有限制，而推广收益也有限制。推广会员获得的各种推广收入，60%提现，40%进入交易账户。扣下来的40%用来强制要求买维卡币。投资者在卖出挂单到期后，系统会自动取消卖单。投资者想自行卖出“维卡币”非常困难，而想要变现或退出投资，只能转让整个账号给他人。但实际上，不管它赚了多少，都一定不是你的，因为你无法顺利地卖掉自己的维卡币换成钱，如果不拉人头的话，基本投资的钱都是有去无回。湖南株洲县人民法院一审以组织、领导传销活动罪，分别判处35名被告人缓刑至有期徒刑七年不等的刑罚，并处1万元至500万元不等的罚金。同时，对扣押、冻结在案的涉案资金13.6亿余元及孳息、被告人已退缴的违法所得、随案移送的犯罪工具依法予以没收，上缴国库，对剩余涉案资金及被告人未退缴部分继续予以追缴。虽然维卡币国内主要分支已被摧毁，鉴于该传销网站服务器架设在国外，目前维卡币传销项目死而不僵，仍在国内部分地区活动。3、云数贸五行币只要投资5000元买一枚五行币，5000元买的可不是五行币本身，买的是一种资格，这种资格就是每枚五行币后面附带的会迅速升值的5000数字货币。按照购买时的承诺，五行币除附带的数字货币每隔两到三个月就会涨五倍的价，涨价时发行公司就会分红并赠送新的数字货币，参与者拿着赠送来的数字货币再投入，这样一年之内至少操作五次，也就是所谓的五进五出，计算下来后，5000元买到的五行币静态收益至少就能达到400万元。如果买的人多，价涨得再高些，收入还会更高。这么假的东西，为什么会有那么多人上当受骗？4、人人公益（团伙已被抓）在该网络平台上，投资者（即“天使”）通过向商家购买“爱心”进行投资。人人优益向投资者承诺：每个“爱心”最高5倍分红返利（返还完即收回“天使豆”），即500天可以收回5倍的投资款，提现时直接转入其平台的银行账户。同时，按照投资者拉人头的数量，该公司还设置了“省代理”、“市代理”、“金牌合伙人”、“银牌合伙人”、“普通合伙人”等层级，逐层按比例抽取让利款（即上一层级可以抽取其下面所有层级的让利款）。 2017年3月下旬，省厅经侦局以广州天河、佛山顺德为主战地，组织全省21市经侦部门共派出43个抓捕小组同步在北京、湖南及省内佛山、广州、深圳、河源等地开展收网行动，抓获包括1号主犯仇某（男，54岁）在内的主要犯罪嫌疑人110余名，捣毁传销窝点30余个，现场缴获涉案银行卡、电脑、手机等一大批，冻结涉案账户100余个、资金1700余万元。初步估计涉案金额20余亿元、涉及全国约20万人。5、民族资产解冻（团伙已被抓） “去鸟巢参加‘最高解冻委员会’组织的民族大业国际市场启动大会，只需缴纳10元的胸牌制作费！”“无论您乘坐什么交通工具，国家都给予报销，安排24号食宿，25号开会，在国内外新闻媒体现场，发放每人5万元人民币！”今年4月20日左右，天津大港人陈某英在其组织的微信群中广泛散布这一“紧急通知”。据介绍，她的这一消息来自在广西凌云经营家具生意的杨某兴，自称是“民族资产解冻委员会的工作人员”。陈某英的积极组织得到了9.3万余人的响应，他们将钱打入陈某英的银行账户，并由其转给杨某兴，总额超过90万元。天津市公安局接到公安部通报后迅速开展侦查，截至目前，成功抓获杨某兴、陈某英等涉案人员44人。目前，本案正在进一步侦办中。6、MBI理财（部分团伙被抓，目前国内MBI传销依然猖獗）MBI总部设在马来西亚，和其它传销模式一样，MBI公司盈利模式也分为静态和动态，下面先看看投资后不推荐一个人静态是怎么盈利的：★5000美金（35000元人民币）：经过8次拆分，历时4年即可拥有上百万元人民币； ★2000美元（14000元人民币）：经过10次拆分，历时5年即可拥有上百万元人民币； ★1000美元（7000元人民币）：经过12次拆分，历时6年即可拥有上百万元人民币； ★500美元（3500元人民币）：经过14次拆分，历时7年即可拥有上百万元人民币； ★200美元（1400元人民币）：经过16次拆分，历时8年多即可拥有上百万元人民币； ★100美元（700元人民币）：经过18次拆分，历时9年多即可拥有上百万元人民币江苏省徐州市中级人民法院 2016年12月7日判决 [ MBI ] 何振球、古希萍等组织、领导传销活动罪有期徒刑八年。7、善心汇善心汇的系统叫做“新经济生态系统”，注册需要通过推荐人向公司缴纳会员年费300元/人，开户注册即可获赠黄花梨“善种子”1株。在善心汇这套系统里，目前分为特困社区、贫困社区、小康社区、富人社区、德善社区五个等级；在这里，打款行为称为“布施”，收款行为称为“受助”；在社区内投资，排单打款时需要用到至少1个善心币，善心币价格为100元/个；然后系统按照排队时间安排“布施”，打款成功后，进入“受助”队列，等待收款。在贫穷社区投资3000元，半个月可以收益900元，减去购买善心币的100元，可以获利800元；一个月差不多能排两次单，就可以获利1600元。以一个家庭有5个账号来算的话，一个月家里就可以多收入8000元。这只是静态收益，系统还设有动态收益，即推荐朋友加入善心汇，可以获得系统独有的跳级制推荐奖，第一代拿6%的推荐奖，第三代拿4%的推荐奖，这个设置会促使会员不断拉人加入。推荐奖并不能全部提现，只能提取一半，另一半奖金转为“善金币”，用于旗下酒店、商城、旅游景点等消费。此外，还有第三种赚钱模式，直推十个人就可以做“功德主”。直推十个人就可以做“功德主”，向公司交5万元后，购买“善种子”和“善心币”可以打七折：每个人注册入会时需要交300元获赠一颗“善种子”、排单时需要花100元购买“善心币”，而成为“功德主”可以用210元“善种子”、70元“善心币”的价格购买到，再按全价收取会员费用，赚取中间的差价。善心汇打着慈善、扶贫的旗号，通过发展下线来运作，采用旁氏骗局的资金盘手法进行运作，属于典型的非法传销活动。8、沃尔克外汇理财（已经崩盘跑路） “沃尔克集团号称是英国顶级外汇经纪商，隶属于沃尔克家族。沃尔克家族早在1900年就开始经营期货，至今己有116年历史……”以炒外汇为噱头，吸引了大批淘金投资者，就连对外汇投资没有丁点认知的大爷大妈都可以参与，因为是托管的，只要交钱给 [ 沃尔克 ] 就有所谓的 “基金经理” 帮你打理，完全可以躺着赚钱，啥也不用你干。但被身边亲朋拉进来参与沃尔克的网友发现，这平台炒外汇有猫腻，钱投进来了并赚不到钱，要赚钱就必须拉下线进来投资，从周抽佣，否则本金都无法拿回。该平台 [ 沃尔克 ] 自称来自爱沙尼亚共和国，金融监管号：VVT000360，对外交易银行账户又所属瑞典银行，并且在网上骗纸还附上了煞有其事的各种监管证书、图片等材料。炒外汇开户一般都会赠金的，沃尔克开户竟然还收100美金开户费！估计全球仅此一家，外汇交易是一个高风险的投资，沃尔克竟然能保证客户收益，每月至少5%，而且是月月到手的收益都在5%以上6%以下，沃尔克假外汇真传销无疑。9、龙爱量子QEF　该平台打着“龙爱量子”高科技的名号到处招摇撞骗，下面我们来看看骗子所谓的消费增值理财是什么鬼？　　宣称共发行100万QEF（相当于100万股），每销售5万QEF上涨0.1美元，价格涨到4美元的时候，1股变2股进行拆分，同时QEF的价格恢复到2美元，因为1X4＝2X2，所以你的资产没有变。然后再每销售5万QEF上涨0.1美元，涨到4美元再拆分，2股变4股，以次循环，无限上涨……也就是说消费85000元,一年可以增值到13.5倍,大约可以赚到1155000元.只要投了钱后坐等分钱就好，这收益快比得上1040阳光工程了，吓死小编了。10、世界云联（团伙已被抓）世界云联传销团伙鼓吹只要入驻“世界云联”，将得到八大福利：第一是送云币，赠送虚拟货币；第二是送原始期权股，“世界云联”将于2018年在英国伦敦、香港等地上市；第三是终身提现，只要达到4—900万元授信额度，就享受终身提现的权利；第四是可以贷款；第五是赠送实体超市；第六是管理奖，下线贷款后可分得部分利息成为掌上银行家；第七是终身养老；第八是世袭100年，终生有效。警方查明，这“八大福利”纯属子虚乌有，“世界云联”既没有具体产品，又没有实际工程，纯粹就是“空手套白狼”。“世界云联”有专门的宣传团队，他们到全国20多个城市到处游说讲课，蛊惑人心，以达到榨取钱财的目的。常德市公安局副局长彭进对外宣布，经过3个多月的连续缜密工作，常德市和津市市两级公安机关联合作战，成功破获了一个以西安和深圳两地为主，辐射湖南、广东、陕西、安徽、浙江、北京等全国20多个省市，打着民族的、世界的、生态的幌子，拉人头、发展下线、牟取利益，涉案资金1亿多元的特大传销团伙案。11、赛比安“赛比安”与“WV梦幻之旅”一样实行“双轨制”，鼓励会员分左右两区发展下线，只有两区各达到一定的人数，才能达到相应的等级。按照发展人数，设立从低到高的金字塔等级，依次为创始人、V IP创始人、精英创始人、1到5星级、大使级、黄金大使、铂金大使、钻石大使、总裁大使。“赛比安”和“WV梦幻之旅”一样都是通过“拉人头”的方式发展“团队”，发展下线时收取会员的月费。入会“赛比安”虽然不用交入会费，但是每个月要交125美元即人民币850元的月费。如果要免交月费，则需要发展下线———“只要直推3人，即可抵消入会费用，而且每天还可到账5美元”。“赛比安”团队为了“拉人头”，除了编造很多高大上的说辞外，还用尽心思通过微信朋友圈灌以“大剂量的心灵鸡汤”，宣扬“选择了赛比安，就选择了成功。”而这种金字塔层级的发展下线模式，正是传销的特征之一。其所谓的商业模式，说到底就是最底层为上层“买单”。12、能量锎（已崩盘跑路）首先我们来看看能量锎的宣传是多么牛X:QITS量子智能技术(以色列)有限公司成立于2008年3月，总部位于以色列科技研究和高等教育中心——海法市。公司专注于研究量子计算和研究成果的商业化，并提供基于量子技术的多协议网络安全的产品和服务。与此同时，公司还研究、开发和生产世界领先的量子安全通信系统和创新性的量子技术产品，可用于国防部、金融体系、政府部门、科研机构和其他高科技企业。能量锎所谓的高收益来源：1、够买锎等待锎升值 2、持有的锎多，每天系统还赠送锎（类似分红，数量没有规定） 3、用户之间互相转这个锎，可以产生能量值，能量值能产生锎（项目的亮点，炒作项目的手段）4、玩训练参数，与玩家之间互赌，预测正确一方赚赌注的一倍收益。每天预测未来价格涨跌正确可延长训练参数的分红。 5、玩模拟交易金，积分达50可以提现预测正确赚取的训练金，如果预测错了，次日系统还会赠送模拟金让你继续预测。这是一个只赢不输，稳赚不赔的期权交易。6、模拟交易金的积分达100分，将成为顶级训练师，可获得公司的智能交易席位，能获得参与公司合作伙伴（高盛、凯雷、黑石等）的一些基金项目“入场券”，包括一些高端投资，交易，套利的资格。看完上面吹的牛逼，小编震惊了，该项目属于打着区块链名义进行诈骗的资金盘传销骗局，目前该项目已经崩盘，各地会员陆续报案中，该项目圈钱百亿。13、万石集（崩盘跑路被立案）深圳万石集公司自称是分享经济模式的领航者，自设“商品网上交易平台+会员大数据+商品消费+生产企业+产业链金融”的共享经济生态圈模式。这家公司的办公地址位于深圳福田某高级写字楼里，主要业务是发行玉石资产包，让投资者认购后，放在电子商务平台上炒作。然而，最近投资者发现该平台出不了金，且公司早已人去楼空，公司疑卷款跑路。目前市面像万石集这样的所谓电商新零售平台很多（实际上都是打着互联网创新名义的诈骗平台，不会产生任何利润，满满的都是泡沫），这些平台从炒版画、炒茶叶到炒字画、炒红酒炒白酒，炒药材、炒鸡毛等，从美通天下到雅得，再到书画宝，下一个崩盘的平台是哪一个呢？让我们拭目以待。14、亮碧思亮碧思的根据地在香港，由于深圳毗邻香港，深圳是亮碧思传销的重灾区，每年都有大批深圳大学生被骗去香港加入亮碧思传销。加入亮碧思传销的受害者大多经亲朋好友、同学介绍，以前往香港考察进出口生意或从事代购为名，缴纳上千元费用与他们一同赴港。在香港期间，他们不仅需了解亮碧思出品的奶粉、红酒、精油灯产品，见到因销售亮碧思而“发达”的经销商，还不时受到上课洗脑和亲朋好友劝说。在完成三、四天以销售产品为目标的课程后，受害人被说服缴纳上万元费用成为亮碧思的经销商。以高额回馈为诱饵，向受害人推广产品、宣讲销售奖金制度，从而诱骗受害人加入，接二连三有人深陷其中……这是香港亮碧思公司组织领导传销活动的常用伎俩，该案近期被深圳福田警方破获。亮碧思传销网络的隐蔽性和欺诈性让其披上了一层神秘外衣，而使用多个代名则让人看得云里雾里，也让它有了一定的活动空间。在深入调查后，深圳福田警方重拳出击，侦破了香港亮碧思公司在内地涉嫌组织、领导传销一案，目前批准逮捕25人，其中包括亮碧思传销网络在深圳最高层级“公爵”之一的“大冬”（化名，下同），初步估算金额超过2亿元。亮碧思传销在警方的打击后，也一直在变更名称躲避查处，其中包括SPN（又名BV、APEX）、明昇（又名Francine）、THY（又名诗贝朗）以及SGB，请大家注意防范。15、绿藻积分绿藻积分打着实体+大健康产业链+商城产品+数字积分+资本上市的幌子大肆进行拉人头的活动，涉嫌传销和集资诈骗。小编想说一句，小球藻公司骗了这么多钱，就不能花点钱请个好点的ui设计师吗？我们来看看绿藻积分的奖金制度（赤裸裸的传销拉人头套路）：投资金额 1000-30000元【1000的整数倍,3个区域的投资级别】投资静态收益：每天1%-3%分红投资静态收益 6--10倍。（动静态达到6-10倍复投）激活码：100元一个/赠送双倍的消费积分。1000元—9000元 1个激活码赠送200消费积分， 6倍收益。10000元—19000元 2个激活码赠送400消费积分 8倍收益。20000元—3万 3个激活码赠送600消费积分， 10倍收益每天按照投资金额放大杠杆倍数后1‰--3‰，返利静态10%重消日封顶:投资金额数每天【假如投资30000元，日封顶30000元】动态收益1.三级分销第1代静态返利收益的25% 推荐1人拿1代第2代静态返利收益的10% 推荐3人拿2代第3代静态返利收益的15% 推荐6人拿3代2. 晋级奖【极差制晋级奖】一.社区代理: 直推8人团队20--50人无限层奖励静态收益8%二.县级代理: 直推10人团队51--100人无限层奖励静态收益12%三.市级代理: 直推12人团队101--199人无限层奖励静态收益15%3. 团队总业绩奖一.蓝宝石：直推15人，团队200人奖励团队每天静态返现无限代1%二.红宝石：直推20人，团队500人，团队产生2个蓝宝石奖励团队每天静态收益无限代2%三.绿宝石：直推20人，团队2000人，团队产生2个红宝石奖励团队每天静态收益无限代3%最新！2017年12月份前的传销资金盘名单。1、巨氧超宝。2、天香积分。3、文创币。4、永利众筹。5、汇友统筹。6、宗圣文化。7、金凤凰。8、华硒积分。9、中劵资本。10、汇赢。11、聚金缘。12、瀚海资本。13、摸金派。14、拉拉起航。15、京石园。16、一文鸡。17、幸福100。18、普金证券MPL。19、鼎润。20、泓樽付。21、TA金融。22、海陆汇。23、钱柜。24、永利皇宫。25、云尊币。26、蒲公英。27、CAR国际车城。28、鸿盛金融。29、益家人。30、BT99。31、沃野。32、贯军E购皇朝万鑫。33、寒溪。34、康图理财。35、普金证券MPL。36、SMT理财。37、19爱心。38、世通百草堂。39、维加斯理财。40、亚国际交易。41、黑石通汇。42、韦尔资本。43、炎帝生物。45、优时代。46、丰达凯来。47、爱心汇。48、万维币。49、太白盛世。50、鼎城。51、淘金农场。52、中坚诚信。53、聚富达。54、心连心。55、嗨网。56、美业币。57、国投联盟。58、口尊家园。59、大润生物。60、兴中天。61、鼎烨。62、金颐鸿达。63、星维资本。64、优狐消费网。65、G.S.R皇家豪星娱。66、SOS理财互助。67、互惠庄园。68、MINI商业街。69、华贸国际。70、哆备宝。71、瑞亿拆分。72、精准普惠证券。73、DGU迪优。74、红杉国际。75、GPL证券。76、ACL。77、国际创富。78、君联国际。79、中国易物物联网。80、宝特币。81、传家宝。82、金元宝投资。83、中券新马甲 [ FFG ]。84、TPS138云集品。85、3658商城。86、和汇网。87、新智谷。88、VIC数字货币。89、华莱黑茶。90、五行币。91、利物币。92、世界云联。93、民族资产。94、云联慧。95、维加斯。96、凯西爱。97、爱同行。98、中信天城。99、美丹马场。100、桃源传奇。101、邦富。102、飞鸽速传。103、UI。104、宝庆文化。105、深蓝积分。106、王者荣耀资金盘。107、和氏王者（和氏币）。108、MGM博彩。109、五星币。110、赚典。111、梦联。112、熊猫乐园。113、YO全球支付。114、雷达钱包。115、OGE理财。116、星路客。117、环球积分。118、迪拜美丹。119、乐享动力。120、欧亚币。121、利荣证券。122、蓝岛香柚种植园。123、金鸡下蛋游戏。124、信丰国际。125、NGA分红盘。126、大风车。127、北斗吉祥。128、SVI胜威。129、纳斯达克资本。130、善合信。131、中瑞宇成。132、众善行。133、亿盛。134、新源普惠。135、丰谷万众。136、茶鑫源。137、贝壳国际。138、汇联农场理财。139、万慈汇。140、新源普惠。141、聚富达。142、摇金果。143、韦尔资本。144、利万家。145、TZT。146、鑫诚。147、威廉。148、中云全返。149、东盟互助。150、造梦者互助。151、SKY云世纪。152、MS福袋。153、五泰国际。154、造梦者互助。155、卡莱尔。156、九樱果。157、HEG尊享汇。158、抢单网。159、世纪畅享。160、超值分享购。161、如歌财富。162、钱宝网。163、云吃货。164、老妈乐。165、麦点商城。166、中睿盛通。167、蓝天格瑞。168、珠海壹众生物科技。169、鑫圆共享经济。170、美极客。171、千城万店。172、蓝德权证。173、鲁易购。174、蚂蚁口服液。150家＂消费返利＂传销骗局名单曝光！各地已纷纷预警！消费全返基本都是拿后面的人的钱支付前面人的返利（消费全返所谓的商业模式与正常的商业规律相悖），消费全返公司多是和钱宝网一样的旁氏骗局罢了。这篇文章发布后，估计会有一堆传销疯狗过来乱喷，欢迎留言举报传销骗局，您的支持和转发，有可能会挽救一个家庭。长按上方二维码，关注小警之家中国200万警察都在关注投稿/zhaopolice(微信)xiaojingzhijia@yeah.net小警之家中国200万警察都在关注关注"],["topImageUrl","data:image/gif;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVQImWNgYGBgAAAABQABh6FO1AAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=="],["error",null]]}]}],["text","中國2018最新傳銷名單，快分享給你的朋友，如果他們正在做，那可以救他們一命！不然被抓到可是會死刑的！！\nhttps://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/Lsm-ospzKnFdfgVzL_xkeg"],["id","AWDOp1alyCdS-nWhumc1"],["createdAt","2018-01-07T03:26:01.377Z"]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",1],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",1],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_AO7U9UgO3jfO7w-_TCIO4Xtij_63hrFiTOAIF-wiO0o"],["name","忠誠的✖長濱✖法蘭克林"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","Universal and reusable virus deactivation system for respiratory protection"],["url","https://www.nature.com/articles/srep39956#Sec8"],["summary","AbstractAerosolized pathogens are a leading cause of respiratory infection and transmission. Currently used protective measures pose potential risk of primary/secondary infection and transmission. Here, we report the development of a universal, reusable virus deactivation system by functionalization of the main fibrous filtration unit of surgical mask with sodium chloride salt. The salt coating on the fiber surface dissolves upon exposure to virus aerosols and recrystallizes during drying, destroying the pathogens. When tested with tightly sealed sides, salt-coated filters showed remarkably higher filtration efficiency than conventional mask filtration layer, and 100% survival rate was observed in mice infected with virus penetrated through salt-coated filters. Viruses captured on salt-coated filters exhibited rapid infectivity loss compared to gradual decrease on bare filters. Salt-coated filters proved highly effective in deactivating influenza viruses regardless of subtypes and following storage in harsh environmental conditions. Our results can be applied in obtaining a broad-spectrum, airborne pathogen prevention device in preparation for epidemic and pandemic of respiratory diseases.\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n IntroductionAerosols take a prominent role in airborne transmission of respiratory diseases. Droplets with aerodynamic size (da) < 10 μm and 10 < da < 100 μm are known to infect the alveolar regions and upper respiratory tract, respectively1,2. Notably, aerosols can also be a route of infection in diseases that, contrary to for instance influenza, do not specifically target the respiratory tract, as it could be the case of Ebola virus3. While vaccination can greatly reduce morbidity and mortality, during a pandemic or epidemic new vaccines matching the specific strain would be available, at the earliest, six months after the initial outbreak. Additionally, following development of an effective viral vaccine, several potential problems would remain, such as limited supply due to insufficient production capacity and time-consuming manufacturing processes. As a result, individuals close to the point of an outbreak would be in imminent danger of exposure to infectious diseases during the non-vaccine period. In the absence of vaccination, respirators and masks can be worn to prevent transmission of airborne pathogenic aerosols and control diseases, such as influenza4.The main alternative, the N95 respirator, requires training prior to use, must be expertly fitted to address the risk of faceseal leakage at the face-mask interface, and must be disposed of as biohazard5. Due to these factors, the use of N95 respirators on a large scale is impractical and expensive during an epidemic or pandemic. Past experiences of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), H1N1 swine flu in 2009, and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) indicate that surgical masks have been most widely adopted by the public as personal protective measure, despite controversy on their effectiveness6,7,8,9. Currently, among other factors, filtration in respirators and masks depends on filter characteristics, including fiber diameter, packing density, charge of fibers and filter thickness, as well as particle properties, such as diameter, density and velocity10,11,12,13,14. However, in the lack of a system to deactivate the collected pathogens, safety concerns naturally arise about secondary infection and contamination from virus-laden filter media during utilization and disposal. Furthermore, since re-sterilization is not possible without causing damage, respirators and masks are recommended for single use only9,15,16. Scientific efforts have been focused on treatment of filters with materials possessing well-known antimicrobial properties, such as iodine, chlorine and metals17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25, although with limited effectiveness against virus aerosols26,27,28. Therefore, a key challenge is the development of an easy-to-use, universal virus negation system, which is reusable without reprocessing and capable of deactivating pathogens, thereby reducing potential risk of secondary infection and transmission.Here, we report a simple but efficient virus inactivation system exploiting the naturally occurring salt recrystallization. Our strategy is to modify the surface of the fibrous filtration layer within masks with a continuous salt film for virus deactivation via two successive processes: i) salt is locally dissolved by the viral aerosols and ii) supersaturation is followed by evaporation-induced salt recrystallization. Consequently, viruses are exposed to increasingly higher concentrations of saline solution during drying and physically damaged by recrystallization.ResultsPreparation and characterization of salt-functionalized filtersTo demonstrate the concept of virus deactivation system based on salt recrystallization, the middle layer of three-ply surgical mask, polypropylene (PP) microfiber filter, was coated with NaCl salt as an active virus negation unit (see Supplementary Fig. S1 for bare PP filter). The coating formulations contained surfactant to enhance wetting of saline solution on the surface of hydrophobic PP fibers. Bare PP filters (abbreviated as Filterbare) were pre-wet to contain about 600 μL of coating solution (abbreviated as Filterwet). The amount of NaCl salt (Wsalt in mg/cm2) coated on the filter per unit area, considering that the filters thickness is constant, was easily controlled by changing the coating solution volume (Vsalt in μL) during drying of pre-wet filter (radius: 3 cm, Wsalt = 3.011 + 0.013 × Vsat, n = 7) (Fig. S2). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) mapping analysis showed the formation of homogeneous NaCl coating during drying, as also confirmed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) (Fig. 1a,b and Supplementary Fig. S3). Both the formation of NaCl coating on PP fibers and presence of surfactant in the coating formulation appeared to alter the filter surface properties from hydrophobic (bare filter; contact angle, θc = 133.0 ± 4.7°) to completely hydrophilic (salt-coated filter; θc ~ 0°, n = 10) (Fig. 1c and Supplementary Fig. S4). Hydrophilic nature of salt coating can greatly improve adhesion of viral aerosols to PP fibers compared to Filterbare, as seen in Raman microscope images (Fig. 1d and Supplementary Fig. S5).Figure 1: Mask with salt-coated filter for prevention and deactivation of airborne pathogens.(a) SEM image of Filterwet+600μL (top left) and EDX mapping images of Na (red), Cl (green), and NaCl (combination of Na and Cl mapping images), showing the formation of NaCl coating, as also confirmed by XRD spectra (b) of Filterbare, Filterwet, Filterwet+100μL, Filterwet+300μL, Filterwet+600μL, Filterwet+900μL and Filterwet+1200μL (labelled as Bare, wet, wet+100 μL, wet+300 μL, wet+600 μL, wet+900 μL and wet+1200 μL, respectively; miller indices corresponding to NaCl crystal are shown at the top of XRD spectra for each position). (c) Optical microscope images for contact angle measurements using 3 μL DI water droplets on (i) Filterbare and (ii) Filterwet+600μL (n = 10). (d) Microscope images of aerosol on (i) Filterbare and (ii) Filterwet+600μL (n = 10).Filtration efficiency against viral aerosols and protective efficacy in vivoFiltration efficiency of salt-coated filters was tested against aerosols with volumetric mean diameter (VMD) of 2.5–4 μm containing H1N1 pandemic influenza virus (A/California/04/2009, abbreviated as CA/09) at different pressure conditions (see Fig. 2a for transmission electron microscope (TEM) image of H1N1 virus). Interestingly, as shown in Fig. 2b, Filterbare did not exhibit any significant level of resistance against penetration of virus under our experimental conditions (i.e., 0% filtration efficiency). Conversely, salt-coated filters showed substantially increasing filtration efficiency with pressure and amount of coated salt. In particular, in the case of Filterwet+600μL, filtration efficiency varied from 43 to 70%, with increasing pressure from 3 to 17 kPa, and Filterwet+1200μL exhibited persistent, high-level efficiency (~85%) (one-way ANOVA, P = 0.85).Figure 2: Filtration efficiency of salt-coated filters.(a) TEM image of CA/09 H1N1 influenza virus. (b) Pressure-dependent filtration efficiency (n = 8–10, mean ± standard deviation (SD)). (c–f) Effects of filtration efficiency on protective efficacy in vivo. Body weight change of mice after infection with the dosages of penetrated virus (n = 12, mean ± SD) (c), survival rates (mean; 100% means that all mice in the group survived as penetrated dosages were lower than lethal dose) (d), lung virus titers (n = 4, mean ± SD) (e), and lung inflammatory cytokine (interferon-γ (IFN-γ)) assay (n = 11, mean ± SD) (f). Legends: filters are labelled as in Fig. 1b.To probe the effects of filtration efficiency on protective efficacy, in vivo experiments were performed using mice intranasally (IN) infected with penetrated dosages of H1N1 virus under breathing pressure (~10 kPa)29. As shown in Fig. 2c, similarly to negative control groups (mice infected with lethal dose of virus stock and aerosolized virus), mice exposed to a dose penetrated through the bare filter showed rapid body weight loss, followed by death within 10 days after infection, in good agreement with the observed 0% filtration efficiency (Fig. 2b). In contrast, mice groups exposed to virus derived from salt-coated filters resulted in 100% survival rate (Fig. 2d). Furthermore, lungs of mice from negative control groups exhibited severe lung infection 4 days after challenge (Fig. 2e). Conversely, mice groups exposed to virus derived from salt-coated filters showed significantly lower levels of lung viral titers (t-test, P < 0.005). This is consistent with lower levels of inflammatory cytokines, interferon-γ (IFN-γ), from salt-coated filter groups compared to negative control and bare filter groups (t-test, P < 0.001) (Fig. 2f).Deactivation of virus on salt-functionalized filtersInfluenza virus stability tests were performed to investigate the effects of salt coating. The same amount of recovered viruses from the PP fibers was used, and, in the case of bare filters, viral aerosols exposure was conducted in the absence of pressure due to 100% penetration of viral aerosols. Unlike bare filters (Fig. S6a(i)), formation of micron-sized NaCl phase represents a typical feature of salt-coated filters due to recrystallization of NaCl salt, following local dissolution upon aerosols exposure (SEM images in Fig. S6a, ii to iv, and EDX mapping in Fig. S6b). In contrast to 8% HA activity loss of virus adsorbed onto Filterbare, salt-coated filters exhibited almost complete HA activity loss within 5 min of incubation (Fig. 3a). Such dramatic virus destabilization on salt-coated filters is further supported by negligible levels of viral titers compared to Filterbare with incubation time (t-test, P < 0.001) (Fig. 3b). It is also noted that virus titers exhibited significant decrease with increase of incubation time and amount of coated salt (ANOVA general linear model, P < 0.001). TEM analysis showed that influenza virus on Filterbare experiences morphological change into non-spherical shape during aerosol drying (Fig. 3c(i)). Notably, influenza virus was severely damaged on salt-coated filters even at 5 min of incubation (Fig. 3c(ii)). From microscopic analysis, aerosol drying time was about 3 min, indicating that destruction of virus observed at 5 min is associated with drying-induced salt crystallization. Physical damage of virus due to crystallization was similarly reported as a major destabilizing factor of inactivated influenza virus30,31. Lower levels of native fluorescence and nile red fluorescence from virus recovered from salt-coated filters accounted for more severe conformational change of antigenic proteins and destabilization of viral envelope, respectively, consistent with TEM analysis (t-test, P < 0.001) (Fig. 3d). In parallel, we investigated the separate effect of salt concentration increase on virus stability during the aerosol drying process, irrespective of crystal growth. As displayed in Supplementary Fig. S7, the materials collected in suspension from Filterwet+600μL induced visible morphological transformation of the virus (Supplementary Fig. S7b) compared to suspension of Filterbare (Supplementary Fig. S7a). This can be attributed to the high salt/surfactant concentration and osmotic pressure, which have been well-known to destabilize proteins and viruses31,32,33. Therefore, the marked virus destabilization on salt-coated PP fibers can be explained by the combined effects of salt concentration increase during drying and evaporation-induced salt crystallization.Figure 3: Inactivation of virus adsorbed on salt-coated filters.(a,b) HA activity (a) and virus titer (b) displaying the effects of incubation time on the remaining activity of virus (n = 4–8, mean ± SD). (c) TEM images of viruses reconstituted, after incubation for 5 and 60 min, from (i) Filterbare and (ii) Filterwet+600μL. (d) Native fluorescence/nile red fluorescence of viruses incubated for 60 min (n = 12, mean ± SD). (e,f) Body weight change of mice after infection with virus recovered from filters after incubation for 60 min (n = 12, mean ± SD) (e), and lung virus titers (n = 6, mean ± SD) (f). Asterisk (*): below detection limit. Legends: filters are labelled as in Fig. 1b.To verify in vitro virus stability on the filters, an in vivo study was performed by infecting mice with virus incubated for 60 min on PP filters. As shown in Fig. 3e, Filterbare group exhibited 5% body weight loss at day 9 post-infection, reaching a body weight lower than that of salt-coated filter groups by 10–15%. Thus, significantly higher lung virus titers in the negative control group were observed in contrast to no detectable titers in the salt-coated filter groups (Fig. 3f).Strain-nonspecific virus deactivation and effects of storage under harsh environmental conditions on salt coating stabilityBroad-spectrum protection of salt-coated filters against multiple subtypes of viral aerosols was evaluated by investigating both lethal infectivity by penetrated virus in vivo and infectivity by virus collected on filters during filtration in vitro using A/Puerto Rico/08/1934 (PR/34 H1N1) and A/Vietnam/1203/2004 (VN/04 H5N1). Similarly to CA/09 H1N1, 100% of mice survived viral infection (PR/34 and VN/04), with no evidence of weight loss, due to higher filtration efficiency of salt-coated filter than that of bare filter (Fig. 4a). This is supported by no significant level of viral titer in the lung. In addition, as shown in Fig. 4b, salt-coated PP filters destroyed adsorbed influenza viruses irrespective of both subtypes and amount of coated salts.Figure 4: Strain- and environment-dependent performance of salt-coated filters.(a) Body weight change of mice infected with penetrated PR/34 H1N1 and VN/04 H5N1 viruses through Filterwet+600μL (n = 12, mean ± SD). (b) Virus titers of recovered viruses from bare and salt-coated filters (n = 4, mean ± SD; data for Filterwet, Filterwet+600μL and Filterwet+1200μL are overlapped). (c,d) Body weight change (c) and survival rate (d) of mice infected with dosage of penetrated virus through Filterwet+600μL before and after exposure to harsh environmental conditions (37 °C and 70% RH) for 1 day (filled square and open square overlap in (d)). (e) EDX mapping image of NaCl-coated Filterwet+600μL after incubation for 15 days at 37 °C and 70% RH (combination of Na (red) and Cl (green) mapping images). (f) XRD spectra of Filterwet+600μL before and after incubation at 37 °C 70% for 1 day and 15 days. Legends: filters are labelled as in Fig. 1b.The stability of salt coating on PP fibers was tested under harsh environmental conditions. Incubation at 37 °C and 70% relative humidity (RH) for 1 day did not cause any significant difference in filtration efficiency (t-test, P = 0.718) (Supplementary Fig. S8). As a result, all mice infected with dosage of penetrated virus through the filter stored at high temperature and RH displayed 100% survival with 7% of body weight loss (Fig. 4c,d). Even after 15 days of incubation, salts remained to coat PP fibers (Fig. 4e, and Supplementary Fig. S9a,b), despite change in grain orientation due to recrystallization (Fig. 4f, and Supplementary Fig. S10a,b).DiscussionDevelopment of a universally applicable, low-cost, and efficient mechanism for virus negation is regarded as a major challenge in public health against general airborne biological threats. This led us to propose a new concept of personal/public preventive and control measures using salt-recrystallization against pathogenic aerosols based on two hypotheses. The salt-coating can enhance adsorption of virus on the filter fibers and inactivate virus by the increase of osmotic pressure followed by the crystallization of salts. As shown in Fig. 2b, salt-coated filters exhibited significantly higher levels of filtration efficiency than bare filters. Notably, the bacterial filtration efficiency (BFE) reported by the mask manufacturer is 99%. The different value of filtration efficiency for bare filters obtained under our experimental conditions may be partially due to the use of aerosols with different biological origins. The FDA-recognized ASTM F2101 – 14 standard for evaluation of BFE exposes surgical masks to Staphylococcus aureus aerosols, by employing S. aureus ATCC 653834, which has an average diameter of about 1 μm. In this study, filtration efficiency was calculated following exposure of bare and salt-coated filters to influenza virus, which exhibits a smaller diameter than that of S. aureus by one order of magnitude. Additionally, whereas during BFE evaluation all three layers of surgical masks are used, in this work filtration efficiency refers to mask filters (middle layer). It is worth noting that the conditions for BFE standard evaluation (such as flow rate and time of application of flow) do not coincide with the experimental procedure we used for measurement of the filtration efficiency, which may further contribute to the different result. The enhanced filtration efficiency of salt-coated filters against influenza virus aerosols as compared to bare filters can be explained by the observed wetting of aerosols, favoring greater adhesion to salt-coated filters. Furthermore, the significant improvement in filtration efficiency resulted in complete protection of mice against lethal influenza aerosols, which demonstrates the high level of protection provided by salt-coated filters, outperforming currently used bare filters.Rapid loss of HA activity and viral infectivity on salt-coated filters can be explained by physical destruction of virus during recrystallization of coated salts. When the salt-coated filter is exposed to virus aerosols, salt crystals below the aerosol droplet dissolve to increase osmotic pressure to virus. Due to evaporation, the salt concentration of the droplet significantly increases and reaches the solubility limit, leading to recrystallization of salt. As a consequence, virus particles are exposed to increasing osmotic pressure during the drying process and are physically damaged by crystallization. As shown in Fig. 3e,f, the superior advantage of physically destroying the virus adsorbed to the salt-coated PP filters through natural salt crystallization process was further confirmed in vivo. According to previous reports, hyperosmotic stress (>541 mOsm) and crystallization induce membrane perturbation with irreversible deformation of the viral envelope and structural virus damage, respectively, resulting in infectivity loss of virus30,31. Therefore, our data support that the extensive level of infectivity loss associated with a salt recrystallization process caused by physical contact between virus aerosols and salt coating can be used in developing virus negation systems that are reusable without reprocessing.Similarly to CA/09 H1N1 aerosols, increased protection in vivo due to higher filtration efficiency of salt-coated filters compared to bare filters and deactivation of virus on salt-coated filters were observed following exposure to PR/34 H1N1 and VN/04 H5N1 (Fig. 4a,b). This suggests that salt-coated filters prevent virus penetration and destroy virus attached to the filter in a non-specific way. Furthermore, the performance of salt-coated filters was not degraded by storage at 37 °C and 70% RH, demonstrating that salt recrystallization-based filters can ensure protection even under harsh environmental conditions. Notably, for demonstration of the concept of salt-recrystallization based virus deactivation system, NaCl salt was used, which has a critical RH of 75% at 30 °C35. However, salts with higher critical RH can be easily used, such as ammonium sulfate, potassium chloride and potassium sulfate, which have critical RH of 80%, 84% and 96.3% at 30 °C, respectively35. This suggests that salt-coated filters may be developed for specific environmental conditions.In conclusion, we demonstrated that the developed salt-recrystallization based filtration system provides high filtration efficiency and successfully deactivates multiple subtypes of adsorbed viruses. Moreover, we have shown that stability of the salt coating is not compromised by high temperature and humidity, which suggests safe use and long-term storage/reuse at such environmental conditions. Although our tests are based on exposure to different types of influenza virus, the significance of these results for personal and public protective measures may be generally extended to enveloped respiratory viruses where infection and transmission can occur by aerosol. Our salt-coated filter unit can promise the development of long-term stable, versatile airborne pathogen negation system, without safety concerns. In fact, the destruction mechanism of viruses solely depends on the simple, yet robust naturally occurring salt recrystallization process, combining the destabilizing effects of salt crystal growth and concentration increase during drying of aerosols. This idea can be easily applied to a wide range of existing technologies to obtain low-cost, universal personal and public means of protection against airborne pathogens, such as masks and air filters in hospitals. Therefore, we believe that salt-recrystallization based virus deactivation system can contribute to global health by providing a more reliable means of preventing transmission and infection of pandemic or epidemic diseases and bioterrorism.MethodsBare and salt-coated filter samples preparationThe commercial surgical masks had a three-ply structure. The middle layer is the filter media, whereas the inner and outer layers provide support and protect the filter against wear and tear. The metal nose clips and elastic ear loops were removed and circular samples (radius: 3 cm) were cut from the masks. The PP filters (middle layer) were isolated by removing the inner and outer protective layers (bare filters, Filterbare). The coating solution was prepared by dissolving sodium chloride (NaCl; Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO) in filtered DI water (0.22 μm pore size; Corning, Tewksbury, MA) under stirring at 400 rpm and 90 °C, followed by the addition of Tween 20 (Fisher Scientific) to a final concentration of 29.03 w/v% of NaCl and 1 v/v% of Tween 20. To obtain the salt-coated filters, the mask bare PP filters were pre-wet to contain approximately 600 μL of coating solution by incubating overnight at room temperature. Any remaining dry areas were removed by applying gentle strokes with tweezers to the filters while immersed in the coating solution. Subsequently, the filters were deposited in the desired volume of coating solution (0, 100, 300, 600, 900 and 1200 μL, of which corresponding membranes are abbreviated as Filterwet, Filterwet+100μL, Filterwet+300μL, Filterwet+600μL, Filterwet+900μL, and Filterwet+1200μL, respectively) on petri dishes (60 × 15 mm; Fisher Scientific) to control the amount of NaCl per unit area and dried in an oven (Isotemp Incubator, Fisher Scientific) at 37 °C for 1 day.Influenza virus preparationInfluenza viruses A/California/04/2009 (CA/09, H1N1), A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (PR/34, H1N1) and A/Vietnam/1203/2004 (VN/04, H5N1) were grown in 10-day old embryonated hen eggs, in which H5N1 virus was derived by reverse genetics from HPAI A/Vietnam/1203/200436. Influenza viruses were purified from allantoic fluid using discontinuous sucrose gradient (15%, 30% and 60%) layers following the previously reported procedure37.Aerosols exposure to filtersFor experiments involving aerosols exposure, an aerosol chamber (L × W × H = 145 × 145 × 150 mm; Emka Inc., Middletown, PA) was used (Fig. S11). It has a connection to the vacuum line and a circular aperture in the top wall (diameter: 22 mm) to exactly accommodate the cylindrical part (diameter: 20 mm, height; 20 mm) of the nebulizer unit that is below the aerosol generator (Aeroneb Lab Nebulizer System; Aerogen, Galway, Ireland). Bleach was used as trap between the chamber and the vacuum pump (Welch 2522C-10, 22 L/min; Niles, IL). The filters were placed on top of the chamber aperture and the nebulizer unit was inserted, ensuring the tight seal of the filters against the side of the aperture. 5 μL of virus stock were added to the nebulizer unit, aerosols (VMD 2.5–4 μm from manufacturer specifications) were generated for 30 sec and subsequently the desired vacuum level (3, 10 or 17 kPa) was applied, by manual control, three times in 1 sec cycles. Notably, in the case of bare filters, pressure was only applied for filtration efficiency tests.For all assays and analysis, suspensions of the filters were prepared as follows, unless otherwise indicated. To reconstitute virus adsorbed onto filters, virus-laden filters were immersed in 400 μL of sterilized DI water for about 5 min, and then removed after vortexing from the suspension. The virus suspension was centrifuged at 19,800 g and 4 °C for 10 min (Centrifuge 5810 R, Eppendorf, Hauppauge, NY), followed by resuspension of pellets in 70 μL of DI water to eliminate any interference from materials in supernatant during assays.Filtration efficiency testsThe filters were exposed to the virus aerosols at 3, 10 and 17 kPa and suspensions of the filters were obtained, as described above. The filtration efficiency was calculated as the ratio of the amount of virus (i.e., total proteins measured from the virus) reconstituted from the filter to that from the virus in the exposure aerosols. The concentration of virus in aerosols was determined by generating viral aerosols into a 15 mL centrifuge tube, containing 1 mL of DI water. After vortexing, virus concentrations (i.e., total protein concentration) were measured with bicinchoninic acid assay (BCA protein assay kit; Thermo Fischer scientific, Waltham, IL) with bovine serum albumin as a standard. In the case of virus reconstituted from salt-coated filters, virus-laden filter suspension was replaced with DI water prior to BCA assay.In vivo infection testsLethal infectivity of influenza viruses (CA/09 H1N1) was examined in 8 week old female inbred BALB/c mice (Nara Biotech; Seoul, Korea) by using the intranasal route. For bare and salt-coated filters, 12 mice per group were infected with individual penetration dosage of influenza virus through each filter. The penetration dosage of the virus through the filters (Filterbare, Filterwet, Filterwet+600μL, and Filterwet+1200μL) was calculated from the filtration efficiency at 10 kPa (near breathing pressure) using the relationship: penetration dosage = virus dosage in lethal aerosol × penetration efficiency (%)/100, where penetration efficiency (%) = 100 − filtration efficiency (%). To examine the effects of the aerosolization process on the viral infectivity change, two mice groups were infected with a lethal dose of virus before and after aerosol formation, which served as negative control groups. Body weight changes and survival rate of mice were monitored daily for 15 days. Mice with body weight loss greater than 25% were euthanized. All animal protocols were approved by the Kyung Hee University (KHU) Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). All animal experiments and husbandry involved in this work were conducted under the approved protocols and guidelines of KHU IACUC. KHU IACUC operates under National Veterinary Research and Quarantine Service (NVRQS), and animal welfare law and regulations of the WOAH-OIE (World organization for animal health).To test strain-dependent lethal infection behavior, mice (12 per group) were infected with the penetrated dosage of viral aerosols (PR/34 H1N1 and VN/04 H5N1 viruses) through Filterwet+600μL at 10 kPa. Time-dependent body weight change was monitored in the same manner described above.Lung viral titer and lung inflammatory cytokine assays after infectionOn day 4 after infection 6 mice of each group were sacrificed for the collection of lung samples. Lung virus titers were measured on six-well plates containing confluent MDCK cell monolayers. Inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ) were determined using BD OptEIA mouse IFN-γ ELISA kit (BD Biosciences, San Jose, CA) following the manufacturer’s procedure.Test of viral infectivity change on filtersTo investigate the effects of salt-coating on viral infectivity loss, lethal influenza aerosols were exposed to four different types of filters (Filterbare, Filterwet, Filterwet+600μL, and Filterwet+1200μL). Since Filterbare exhibited almost complete penetration upon pressure application, aerosols were exposed to the bare filter in the absence of pressure and samples were carefully handled to prevent mechanical agitation. To measure time-dependent stability change of virus, virus-laden filters were incubated at ambient conditions for 0, 5, 15, and 60 min after aerosol exposure, and suspended in DI water to reconstitute virus at each time point. In vitro stability of virus was characterized by measuring hemagglutinin activity (HA) and virus titers at the same concentration as lethal dose30. The conformational stability of antigenic proteins was characterized by measuring intrinsic fluorescence using 0.1 mg/mL of virus suspension38. To investigate morphological change of virus, lipid stability of viral wall was characterized by nile red fluorescence (Sigma Aldrich), a fluorescent lipid stain, following manufacturer’s protocol39. A decrease in fluorescence intensity can be used to examine the level of disintegration of the virus. Both intrinsic and nile red fluorescence were measured by using a fluorimeter (LB 50B; PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA). Intensity changes of fluorescent spectra were compared relative to those of a control from virus stock.To test infectivity difference observed from in vitro findings, in vivo study was performed for the virus reconstituted from the filters (Filterbare, Filterwet, Filterwet+600μL, and Filterwet+1200μL) after incubation for 60 min at RT (aerosol exposure at 10 kPa, except for Filterbare). 12 mice per group were infected with a lethal dose of virus collected from each type of filter. Body weight change and lung virus titers were measured as described above.Effects of environmental conditions on the performance of salt-coated filterSalt-coated filters (Filterwet, Filterwet+600μL, and Filterwet+1200μL) were stored at 37 °C, 70% RH in an incubator (Maru Max; Rcom, Gyeonggi-do, South Korea) for 15 days. Every day, the filters were collected and incubated at ambient conditions for 5 min. At 1-day incubation, filtration efficiency was measured at 10 kPa from Filterwet+600μL, followed by in vivo infection test. Lethal infectivity between two different filter groups (before and after incubation at 37 °C, 70% RH) was compared by measuring body weight change and survival rate of mice after exposure to lethal CA/09 H1N1 aerosols. XRD analysis was performed to salt-coated filters incubated for 1 and 15 days, and SEM/EDX mapping analysis for 15-day incubated samples.Contact angle measurements and imaging of aerosolsThe bare and salt-coated filters were fixed with carbon tape (Ted Pella, Inc., Redding, CA) to a metal, flat substrate and 3 μL of DI water were added on the surface of the filters. The contact angles were measured from images collected with an optical microscope (10× lens, Motic SMZ-140; Motic, Richmond, Canada) at RT. Images of aerosols on filter fibers were obtained using a dispersive Raman microscope (Nicolet Almega XR; Fisher Scientific).Aerosol drying time on filtersThe bare and salt-coated filters were fixed with carbon tape to a metal, flat substrate and exposed to aerosols generated from 5 μL of Sulforhodamine B Dye solution (1 mM, Sigma-Aldrich). Aerosol drying time was determined with timer by observation with optical microscope.Electron microscopy analysisFor virus stability tests, bare and salt-coated filters were exposed to CA/09 H1N1 aerosols and, after 5 and 60 min incubation, virus was recovered by suspension of the filters, as described above. To study the effects of the coating formulation during aerosol drying independently from crystal growth, bare and salt-coated filters were immersed in DI water and removed after 60 min. Subsequently, virus was incubated in the obtained suspension for 60 min. Additionally, the virus suspension was centrifuged at 19,800 g and 4 °C for 10 min to collect the samples and suspend them in DI water. For TEM analysis (200 kV, JEOL JEM 2100; JEOL, Peabody, MA), samples were deposited on copper grid (Electron Microscopy Sciences, Hatfield, PA) and negatively stained with solution comprised of phosphotungstic acid hydrate (1.5 w/v%, pH = 7.0; Sigma-Aldrich, Oakville, Canada).To identify the morphology of salt-coated filters and recrystallized salts, SEM/EDX analysis was performed for bare and salt-coated filters after coating with 10 nm thick gold layer. Scanning electron microscopy analysis (Hitachi S-3000N; Hitachi, Toronto, Canada) was operated in secondary electron mode at 20 kV and EDX analysis was obtained with EDX detector (Oxford Instruments, Concord, MA).XRD analysisTo confirm the formation of crystalline NaCl coating during drying process and its stability during storage at 37 °C and 70% RH, XRD analysis (BRU-1098; Bruker, Billerica, MA) was performed at different coating conditions. Filters (1 × 1 cm) were mounted on a slide glass for XRD analysis (θ–2θ mode) using a CuKα radiation.Statistical analysisTo compare multiple conditions, Student’s t-test, One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and general linear model were used (Minitab release 14; Minitab, State College, PA). P value of less than 0.05 was considered to be significant.Additional InformationHow to cite this article: Quan, F.-S. et al. Universal and reusable virus deactivation system for respiratory protection. Sci. 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A novel anti-influenza copper oxide containing respiratory face mask. PLoS One 5, e11295 (2010).24Borkow, G. & Gabbay, J. Putting copper into action: copper-impregnated products with potent biocidal activities. FASEB J. 18, 1728–1730 (2004).25Li, Y., Leung, P., Yao, L., Song, Q. W. & Newton, E. Antimicrobial effect of surgical masks coated with nanoparticles. J. Hosp. Infect. 62, 58–63 (2006).26Lee, J. H. et al. Assessment of iodine-treated filter media for removal and inactivation of MS2 bacteriophage aerosols. J. Appl. Microbiol. 107, 1912–1923 (2009).27Lore, M. B. et al. Performance of conventional and antimicrobial-treated filtering facepiece respirators challenged with biological aerosols. J. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 9, 69–80 (2012).28Rengasamy, S., Fisher, E. & Shaffer, R. E. Evaluation of the survivability of MS2 viral aerosols deposited on filtering face piece respirator samples incorporating antimicrobial technologies. Am. J. Infect. Control 38, 9–17 (2010).29Windisch, W., Hennings, E., Sorichter, S., Hamm, H. & Criee, C. P. Peak or plateau maximal inspiratory mouth pressure: which is best? Eur. Respir. J. 23, 708–713 (2004).30Choi, H.-J. et al. Stability of influenza vaccine coated onto microneedles. Biomaterials 33, 3756–3769 (2012).31Choi, H.-J. et al. Stability of whole inactivated influenza virus vaccine during coating onto metal microneedles. J. Control. Release 166, 159–171 (2013).32Baldwin, R. L. How hofmeister ion interactions affect protein stability. Biophys. J. 71, 2056–2063 (1996).33Choi, H.-J. et al. Effect of osmotic pressure on the stability of whole inactivated influenza vaccine for coating on microneedles. PLoS one 10, e0134431 (2015).34ASTM International. ASTM F2101 - 14 Standard Test Method for Evaluating the Bacterial Filtration Efficiency (BFE) of Medical Face Mask Materials, Using a Biological Aerosol of Staphylococcus aureus (2014).35Adams, J. R. & Merz, A. R. Hygroscopicity of fertilizer materials and mixtures. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 21, 305–307 (1929).36Song, J.-M. et al. Protective immunity against H5N1 influenza virus by a single dose vaccination with virus-like particles. Virology 405, 165–175 (2010).37Quan, F. S. et al. A bivalent influenza VLP vaccine confers complete inhibition of virus replication in lungs. Vaccine 26, 3352–3361 (2008).38Choi, H.-J., Ebersbacher, C. F., Kim, M., Kang, S. & Montemagno, C. D. A mechanistic study on the destabilization of whole inactivated influenza virus vaccine in gastric environment. PLoS one 8, e66316 (2013).39Greenspan, P., Mayer, E. P. & Fowler, S. D. Nile red: a selective fluorescent stain for intracellular lipid droplets. J. Cell Biol. 100, 965–973 (1985).Download referencesAcknowledgementsThis research was financially supported by startup funds from University of Alberta (H.J.C.), and grants from National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) (NRF-2014R1A2A2A01004899) and Ministry of Health & Welfare, Republic of Korea (HI15C2928).Author informationAuthor notesFu-Shi Quan and Ilaria Rubino: These authors contributed equally to this work.AffiliationsDepartment of Medical Zoology, Kyung Hee University School of Medicine, Seoul, 130-701, KoreaFu-Shi QuanDepartment of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, CanadaIlaria Rubino, Brendan Koch & Hyo-Jick ChoiDepartment of Biomedical Science, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 130-701, KoreaSu-Hwa LeeAuthorsSearch for Fu-Shi Quan in:Search for Ilaria Rubino in:Search for Su-Hwa Lee in:Search for Brendan Koch in:Search for Hyo-Jick Choi in:ContributionsH.J.C. conceived and designed the experiments. F.S.Q., I.R., S.H.L., B.K., and H.J.C. performed the experiments. F.S.Q., I.R., S.H.L., B.K., and H.J.C. analyzed the data. I.R. and H.J.C. wrote the manuscript. F.S.Q. and B.K. edited the manuscript.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to\n Hyo-Jick Choi.Ethics declarations\n \n Competing interests\n The authors declare no competing financial interests.\n \n Supplementary informationRights and permissionsThis work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if the material is not included under the Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/Reprints and PermissionsAbout this articleCite this articleQuan, F., Rubino, I., Lee, S. et al. Universal and reusable virus deactivation system for respiratory protection.\n Sci Rep 7, 39956 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep39956Download citationReceived: 04 August 2016Accepted: 30 November 2016Published: 04 January 2017DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep39956\n\n \n \n \n Further reading\n \n \n \n \n \n \n Survival of Microorganisms on Nonwovens Used for the Construction of Filtering Facepiece Respirators\n \n \n \n \n Katarzyna Majchrzycka, Małgorzata Okrasa, Justyna Szulc, Anita Jachowicz[…] & Beata Gutarowska- Show fewer authors\n \n \n International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health\n (2019)\n \n \n \n \n \n \n Respiratory Protection against Pandemic and Epidemic Diseases\n \n \n \n \n Ilaria Rubino & Hyo-Jick Choi\n \n \n Trends in Biotechnology\n (2017)\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n CommentsBy submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines. If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate."],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]}]}],["text","WIKILINK\n最新科技資訊\n\n \n口罩能否反復使用？浸鹽水後可100%讓H1N1病毒滅活，但對其他病毒需謹慎 | 《科學報告》期刊\nFebruary 5, 2020 admin\n曉查發自凹非寺 \n量子位報道 | 公眾號 QbitAI\n一場新冠肺炎讓中國的口罩嚴重告急。\n\n每齣一次門就要廢掉一個口罩，傢裏的口罩即將用完，藥店和網上都買不到，真是急死人瞭。\n\n彆怕，早在2016年，來自韓國慶熙大學的研究者就發現，口罩隻需用普通食鹽水處理後，就具有瞭一定的殺滅病毒能力，至少對2009年爆發的H1N1流感病毒有效。\n\n他們將處理後的口罩來過濾充滿H1N1病毒的空氣，然後再給小白鼠呼吸，結果發現小鼠的存活率達到瞭100%。\n\n\n\n\n \n空氣中的病毒濃度達到瞭緻死量。作為對照，如果使用普通醫用口罩過濾，小白鼠在4天後就會齣現嚴重的肺炎，10天後全部死亡。\n\n這篇文章發錶在2017年1月Nature旗下的Scientific Reports期刊上。\n\n\n\n△實驗中用到的過濾裝置\n早在3年前，該文章就預測瞭口罩短缺的可能性。\n\n作者在開頭說，在疫病大流行時期，生産能力不足和製造過程耗時，會導緻口罩供應有限。\n\nN95口罩雖然可以過濾空氣中形成的病毒氣溶膠，但是在嚴重的疫情麵前，大規模使用N95口罩是不切實際的，而且價格昂貴。\n\n過去的SARS、H1N1、MERS都錶明，醫用外科口罩是被公眾最廣泛采用的個人防護措施，盡管人們對它的效果存在爭議。\n\n因此需要開發一種通用、低成本且有效的防護病毒機製，最好能用在普通醫用口罩上。\n\n\n\n\n\n\n研究人員配置瞭濃度29.03 w/v%的氯化鈉溶液，並在其中加入瞭一些Tween 20錶麵活性劑，將口罩浸潤，然後在37℃的環境下乾燥一天。\n\n文章指齣，經過這種方法處理後的口罩無需再次處理即可重復使用。最終實驗發現，塗有氯化鈉的口罩上的病毒在5分鍾後就失去瞭活性。\n\n\n\n\n\n\n從顯微鏡分析來看，病毒氣溶膠乾燥時間約為3分鍾，錶明在5分鍾時觀察到的病毒破壞與乾燥引起的鹽結晶有關。\n\n作者推測，可能是帶有水分的病毒被吸附在口罩錶麵，濕潤後又重結晶的鹽破壞瞭病毒的結構。\n\n既然對H1N1病毒，自然就有網友很好奇，這種處理方法是否也對新型冠狀病毒有效。\n\n一些網友對此提齣瞭質疑，認為鹽結晶可能減小瞭口罩的通氣量，而且實驗隻對H1N1病毒進行瞭驗證，是否實用還有待商榷。\n\n所以在未經實驗驗證的情況下，請不要用這種方法來過濾新型冠狀病毒。口罩還是要保證一用一換，切不可自行處理後就重復使用，否則仍有被感染的風險。\n\n論文地址：\nhttps://www.nature.com/articles/srep39956#Sec8\n\n— 完 —\n\n"],["id","obwrpyiajxnx"],["createdAt","2020-02-09T01:53:22.130Z"]]}]}],["relatedReplies",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["article",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",1],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",1],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_Q1f0p6vbv2CPiPHbzpxIjPaZLsd2LGzP7V3cIFpGw1A"],["name","好沉思的龍崎佩格"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","StockX: Sneakers, Streetwear, Trading Cards, Handbags, Watches"],["url","https://reurl.cc/DAkMKj"],["summary","SneakersShoesApparelElectronicsTrading CardsCollectiblesAccessoriesRecommended For YouThese products are inspired by your previous browsing history.Nike Dunk Low Cacao Wow (Women's)Lowest Ask$130Last Sale:$147Nike Dunk Low Retro White Black Panda (2021) (Women's)Lowest Ask$127Last Sale:$140Jordan 3 Retro PalominoLowest Ask$173Last Sale:$181adidas Yeezy Slide Bone (2022/2023 Restock)Lowest Ask$128Last Sale:$169Jordan 1 Retro Low OG Black Toe (2023)Lowest Ask$150Last Sale:$148Nike Dunk Low Retro White Black Panda (2021) (GS)Lowest Ask$113Last Sale:$126Popular BrandsTrending Sneakers'Trending' products are a curated collection of our best selling itemsSee AllTrending SneakersJordan 1 Retro Low OG Black Toe (2023)Lowest Ask$1502490 soldJordan 1 Retro High OG UNC ToeLowest Ask$20212430 soldadidas Yeezy Slide Bone (2022/2023 Restock)Lowest Ask$12875392 soldJordan 3 Retro PalominoLowest Ask$1733193 soldadidas Yeezy 450 Slide CreamLowest Ask$151367 soldJordan 4 Retro Red CementLowest Ask$264672 soldPopular Footwear BrandsFeatured Apparel'Featured' products are a curated collection of our best selling itemsSee AllFeatured ApparelFear of God Essentials Hoodie BlackLowest Ask$981269 soldNike x NOCTA Tech Fleece Hoodie BlackLowest Ask$171367 soldSp5der Acai Hoodie PurpleLowest Ask$199586 soldNike x Stussy The Wide World 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Articles"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]}]}],["text","遠通電收：您的一筆通行費\n58元，將於112年8月7日\n到期，避免產生每筆300元\n罰單，請盡速用手機下載\n遠通電收App線上繳費\nhttps://reurl.cc/DAkMKj"],["id","2sb9vij9kklkf"],["createdAt","2023-08-07T01:01:24.820Z"]]}],["reply",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","i2pDR4gBvEj1WkaUMJPB"],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","T93YInMBb3SlMKoAuqZi"],["name","murmur"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",18]]}],["type","RUMOR"],["text","遠通電收表示，無論是國道通行費或停車費的官方簡訊，開頭會明確顯示車主的車號，結尾不會附帶要求民眾填寫刷卡資料的連結。\n若簡訊開頭沒有顯示車主車號，且附上不明連結，是詐騙訊息，千萬不要點擊連結。"],["reference","https://tfc-taiwan.org.tw/articles/9161"],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","【錯誤】網傳簡訊「遠通電收eTag-你有一筆過路費逾期未繳費、您的eTag賬單自動扣款失敗」？"],["url","https://tfc-taiwan.org.tw/articles/9161"],["summary","【報告將隨時更新 2023/5/19版】一、遠通電收表示，無論是國道通行費或停車費的官方簡訊，開頭會明確顯示車主的車號，結尾不會附帶要求民眾填寫刷卡資料的連結。若簡訊開頭沒有顯示車主車號，且附上不明連結，是詐騙訊息，千萬不要點擊連結。二、民眾若要查詢eTag帳單及繳費資訊，可使用ETC App或uTagGo App，或是登入遠通電收官方網站查詢並儲值。三、165反詐騙專線表示，近來出現許多冒充監理站通知繳納汽燃費、ETC欠費未繳等詐騙簡訊，若點入簡訊附的連結，就會出現騙取民眾填寫信用卡資料等個資的網頁。若民眾收到可疑簡訊，請轉發到165反詐騙專線的簡訊處理中心（0911-511-111），由警方調查確認。網傳簡訊為詐騙訊息，因此，傳言為「錯誤」訊息。"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]}]}],["createdAt","2023-08-07T05:52:01.560Z"]]}]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["article",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",1],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",1],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_ABOZ7Vs23G5pYHd6fTzpcnukoeBP6_BMxqpUamKckCw"],["name","生氣勃勃的六龜梅根"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[]}],["text","Dear Sir/Madam,\n I am a good friend of a military doctor currently serving in {South Sudan}.\n I am writing today on behalf of my lovely friend {kevin chen} to apply for an emergency release order (substitution) for him, because I am well aware of some procedures in the diplomatic service of the United Nations, and some situations require him to be in the country where I live (Taiwan). Therefore, his attention is urgently needed to solve the problem immediately. Like I said, I was previously told about some of the process involved in getting an emergency release order for my lovely friend through the UN. Therefore, I kindly ask you to reply to my email as soon as possible and attach all necessary procedures. I hope my email is well understood and I will get a reply as soon as possible.\n sincerely yours."],["id","205tidxi831o2"],["createdAt","2023-04-15T21:28:20.814Z"]]}],["reply",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","8PuZC4YBC7Q3lHuURaew"],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","T93YInMBb3SlMKoAuqZi"],["name","murmur"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",18]]}],["type","RUMOR"],["text","假的，聯合國官網有說明聯合國不批准軍人休假或退休金，或以收費方式發放包裹。\n\n請小心自稱是戰地軍官、軍醫說要來跟你見面或結婚，請你寫信給軍隊或聯合國，還要你先代墊費用的跨國戀愛詐騙。"],["reference","https://www.un.org/en/about-us/fraud-alert\nhttps://165.npa.gov.tw/article/news/478\n\n相關新聞\nhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s6W0alUWFwc\nhttps://udn.com/news/story/7315/6903294\n"],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","Fraud Alert | United Nations"],["url","https://www.un.org/en/about-us/fraud-alert"],["summary",""],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","165 全民防騙網: 什麼是假愛情交友詐騙-165反詐騙專線《詐騙手法大公開》延伸閱讀"],["url","https://165.npa.gov.tw/article/news/478"],["summary","STEP詐騙集團以帥哥、美女的大頭照，於交友APP或FB等社群平台隨機加好友搭訕或在FB文章留言處隨機搭訕。\n\nSTEP自稱是 #戰地軍官 #戰地軍醫或 #駐外工程師等成功人士每天於社群軟體對你噓寒問暖、喊你寶貝親愛的，讓當事人產生戀愛的感覺。\n\nSTEP培養感情一段時間後，開始向你表示戰地十分危險，自己有一些 #積蓄 #退休金怕被人搶走，想放在包裹寄到臺灣給你保管、請你代收，之後想來臺灣和你共度餘生，或是向你表示想來臺灣和你見面，但是需要請假，#請你寫信給軍隊或聯合國。\n\nSTEP接著以包裹卡在機場或港口需要繳納關稅、運費、手續費等名義，限期要求你代轉帳、匯款，關卡重重。\n\nSTEP等你匯款之後又重複以上說法並編造理由，要你持續匯款，直到後來聯繫不上、人間蒸發。\n\n提醒您，網路交友有風險，詐騙集團潛藏在網路世界裡，騙你感情又騙你錢，請保持警覺，提醒自己「聊天可以、借錢免談」，留意從未見面的陌生人和你聊天後，開始以各種理由要你匯款就是詐騙\n\n#不要接受陌生人的交友邀請\n\n#網路交友要注意提到匯款不要理\n\n#網路找真愛小心被騙財\n\n相關新聞：\n\n1.愛上「維和部隊女軍官」桃園單身漢12萬老本差點飛了\n\nhttps://www.ettoday.net/news/20220209/2185593.htm\n\n2.詭詐的巧合婦險匯32萬助醫師情人逃離阿富汗\n\nhttps://www.chinatimes.com/....../20210819002012......\n\n想了解更多?請看詐騙手法大公開及Q & A \n\n165全民防騙官網>>新聞快訊>>常見詐騙手法及防範方法\n\nhttps://165.npa.gov.tw/article/news/465\n\n165全民防騙臉書>>相片>>常見熱門詐騙手法大公開相簿\n\n\n"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","最新》假網戀真詐騙！聯合國軍醫需退休 6旬婦險遭詐6萬多@東森新聞 CH51"],["url","https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s6W0alUWFwc"],["summary","又是銀行臨櫃詐騙！台中一名6旬婦人，在網路上認識，自稱的聯合國軍醫，他說最近要退休需要一筆費用，繳納給聯合國，才能領到退休金！訂閱【東森新聞】現在就加入》https://pse.is/396256加入【東森新聞】會員，獨家影片搶先看》https://pse.is/39m9l8#詐騙#婦人#軍醫"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","奈及利亞詐團佯裝聯合國白人醫師騙台灣10熟女4百萬元 | 聯合新聞網"],["url","https://udn.com/news/story/7315/6903294"],["summary","奈及利亞詐騙集團利用美籍白人照片，佯稱是被派駐戰地的聯合國醫師，利用通訊軟體結識台灣熟女，設下愛情陷阱說服熟女拿錢援助；..."],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]}]}],["createdAt","2023-04-16T06:03:05.899Z"]]}]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["article",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",1],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",1],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_0stnDhD-z7h79CRTymtBXh9PTnjfvzzUCEtOpundi_8"],["name","深沉的烏日穆琳"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[]}],["text"," OK, a little to the left. I want to get dad's store.\n Sorry, 29 years old.\n Still chasing Pokemon. My bad.\n Yeah, you're bad.\n Come on, come on, come on, come on, come on.\n Thank you.\n I'm sorry to bother you. Can I see your receipt, please?\n Of course. Oh, thank you.\n Ooh, an espresso machine, huh?\n It's a beauty. Oh, it's lovely.\n All right, well, you have a great day.\n Thank you.\n All right, this was a birthday gift from my husband.\n It's a beautiful machine, but I think it's a little extravagant for our budget.\n No problem. Do you have your receipt?\n Yes, I do.\n Oh, I'm so sorry!\n I know I'm such an idiot.\n Let me just take it off.\n I'm gonna get some more towels.\n You're only making it worse.\n All right, I'll be right back. We'll have towels.\n That's not gonna work on this shade.\n How long is that flight?\n Okay, yeah, let's go ahead and book those three coach tickets.\n Yes, the number is\n 4-0-1-2, 7-4-9-6,\n 2-3-9-0, 5-1-8-5.\n Oh, the zip code is\n 1-7-9-0-2.\n Perfect. Yeah.\n Thank you very much.\n Hey, how much is it to upgrade?\n Yeah, let's go ahead and make it three first-class tickets.\n There we go. Almost good as new.\n Incredible. Thank you. Yeah, no problem.\n Here we go.\n I have a big meeting. Oh, good. We'll have a great one.\n Thank you.\n Sorry, yeah, so close.\n No worries, I think you saved it."],["id","8s-VNIoBrkRFoI6rHMKx"],["createdAt","2023-08-27T01:21:42.062Z"]]}],["reply",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","G78V-pgB6nor6FKtLyz6"],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","AVriAlOoyrDaTqlmmqhC"],["name","Lin"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",22]]}],["type","RUMOR"],["text","該影片已經經過反轉，躲避偵測並試圖吸引目光，但這其實是刻意拍攝的竊取密碼、訛詐影片，但並非實際發生的情況。"],["reference","https://edge.aif.tw/metai-deepfake/"],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","如何分辨 Deepfake 產生的影片，避免虛假訊息的騙局？"],["url","https://edge.aif.tw/metai-deepfake/"],["summary","在經歷了網紅假造名人不雅影片、烏克蘭總統投降假聲明…等等重大社會事件，Deepfake 這個名詞已經走入大眾的視野。Deepfake 背後的技術本來是科研的一大成果，卻變成被用於犯罪的工具？有沒有分辨的可能？"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]}]}],["createdAt","2025-08-30T08:25:49.312Z"]]}]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["article",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",2],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",4],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_XFzhu-AtMK5wl7uFcWD-1hr3RNc3RwsUmJdC_nBOclI"],["name","熱情的✿金湖✿納特™"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[]}],["text","重溫愛因斯坦大師寫給\n以色列第一任總統哈依姆·威茲曼的信:\n我最大的悲傷是看到\n猶太復國主義者對巴勒斯坦的阿拉伯人\n所做的事和納粹對猶太人所做的事一樣...\n信中還說:\n如果我們無法找到與阿拉伯人\n正當合作、真誠對話的途徑,\n那麼我們就沒有從過去兩千年的痛苦中\n學到任何東西,\n而我們所經歷的一切痛苦也是咎由自\n取。\nIt would be my,greatest\nsadness\nto see Zionists Jews) do to\nPalestinian\nArabs much of what\nNazis did to Jews.\nAlbert Einste"],["id","I_VnLosBAjOeMOklCiAY"],["createdAt","2023-10-14T13:36:26.644Z"]]}],["reply",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","oPU2MosBAjOeMOklKCP_"],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","VaCHMnUB9w1KR1IkNziW"],["name","Lopi"],["avatarUrl","https://www.gravatar.com/avatar/af30fa557254056e02e05d3e04111a1c?s=100&d=identicon&r=g"],["level",14]]}],["type","OPINIONATED"],["text","1⃣️本文第一段” 我最大的悲傷是看到猶太復國主義者對巴勒斯坦的阿拉伯人所做的事和納粹對猶太人所做的事一樣”為假，網上並找不到有這樣的說辭。參考[1]\n2⃣️本文第二段引用的則為真。愛因斯坦1929年給以色列復國運動領導人Chaim Weizmann曾提到《如果我們無法找到與阿拉伯人誠實合作和誠實協議的方法，那麼我們從2000年的痛苦中完全沒有學到任何東西，我們理應得到我們的命運》參考[2]\n3⃣️愛因斯坦反對民族主義，同時也懷疑建立一個猶太國家是不是最好的選擇。他一直希望猶太人和阿拉伯人能夠和平居住在同一個地方。參考[3］\n4⃣️愛因斯坦在1954年寫信給一位以色列友人Sybille Blinoff,也提到《我們[以色列]政策的最重要方面必須是我們永遠存在的、明確的願望，即為生活在我們中間的阿拉伯公民建立完全平等...... 我們對阿拉伯少數民族的態度將真正考驗我們作為一個民族的道德標準》參考[1]"],["reference","[1] Quora: Did Einstein really say….\nhttps://www.quora.com/Did-Einstein-really-say-It-would-be-my-greatest-sadness-to-see-Zionists-do-to-Palestinian-Arabs-much-of-what-Nazis-did-to-Jews\n[2] Ultimate Quotable Einstein\nhttps://books.google.com.tw/books?id=A32-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA206&lpg=PA206&dq=einstein+Should+we+be+unable+to+find+a+way+to+honest+cooperation+and+honest+pacts+with+the+Arabs,+then+we+have+learned+absolutely+nothing+from+our+2,000+years+of+suffering+and+will+deserve+our+fate&source=bl&ots=cCPzuqpCyQ&sig=ACfU3U0HqY6QF72g8ay_nKGsRMV0vEZ0ew&hl=zh-TW&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi8vavJofeBAxUZBYgKHR7HBz0Q6AF6BAgSEAI#v=onepage&q=einstein Should we be unable to find a way to honest cooperation and honest pacts with the Arabs, then we have learned absolutely nothing from our 2,000 years of suffering and will deserve our fate&f=false\n\n[3] 維基：愛因斯坦的政治觀 https://zh.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/愛因斯坦的政治觀"],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","Did Einstein really say: “It would be my greatest sadness to see Zionists do to Palestinian Arabs much of what Nazis did to Jews”?"],["url","https://www.quora.com/Did-Einstein-really-say-It-would-be-my-greatest-sadness-to-see-Zionists-do-to-Palestinian-Arabs-much-of-what-Nazis-did-to-Jews"],["summary","Answer (1 of 14): Everyone whose historical knowledge re Israel, Zionism and Germany goes beyond some catchwords and newspaper headlines understands that Albert Einstein did NOT say or write “It would be my greatest sadness to see Zionists do to Palestinian Arabs much of what Nazis did to Jews”. ..."],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","The Ultimate Quotable Einstein"],["url","https://books.google.com.tw/books?id=A32-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA206&lpg=PA206&dq=einstein+Should+we+be+unable+to+find+a+way+to+honest+cooperation+and+honest+pacts+with+the+Arabs,+then+we+have+learned+absolutely+nothing+from+our+2,000+years+of+suffering+and+will+deserve+our+fate&source=bl&ots=cCPzuqpCyQ&sig=ACfU3U0HqY6QF72g8ay_nKGsRMV0vEZ0ew&hl=zh-TW&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi8vavJofeBAxUZBYgKHR7HBz0Q6AF6BAgSEAI#v=onepage&q=einstein"],["summary","The most comprehensive collection of Einstein quotations ever publishedHere is the definitive new edition of the hugely popular collection of Einstein quotations that has sold tens of thousands of copies worldwide and been translated into twenty-five languages.The Ultimate Quotable Einstein features 400 additional quotes, bringing the total to roughly 1,600 in all. This ultimate edition includes new sections—\"On and to Children,\" \"On Race and Prejudice,\" and \"Einstein's Verses: A Small Selection\"—as well as a chronology of Einstein’s life and accomplishments, Freeman Dyson’s authoritative foreword, and new commentary by Alice Calaprice.In The Ultimate Quotable Einstein, readers will also find quotes by others about Einstein along with quotes attributed to him. Every quotation in this informative and entertaining collection is fully documented, and Calaprice has carefully selected new photographs and cartoons to introduce each section.Features 400 additional quotationsContains roughly 1,600 quotations in allIncludes new sections on children, race and prejudice, and Einstein’s poetryProvides new commentaryBeautifully illustratedThe most comprehensive collection of Einstein quotes ever published"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","愛因斯坦的政治觀 - 维基百科，自由的百科全书"],["url","https://zh.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/愛因斯坦的政治觀"],["summary","阿爾伯特·愛因斯坦是和平主义者和人道主义者，晚年成为民主社会主义者。他曾经说：“我认为甘地的观点是我们这个时期所有政治家中最高明的。人類应该朝此方向努力：不通过暴力达到目的，而是不與你认为邪恶的势力结盟。爱因斯坦反对麦卡锡主义和种族主义。[1]:33, 127, 135,他还是德国自由民主党的建立者之一。[2]:83美国联邦调查局保存的关于爱因斯坦的档案中记录他曾被拒绝以难民条款（Alien Exclusion Act）移民美国，其中一条理由是爱因斯坦信奉、主张、宣扬无政府主义，从而使政府名存实亡。他还被指责为“1937年－1954年34个共产主义运动的参与者和支持者。”不过这些档案是其他部门提交给美国联邦调查局的，而不是美国联邦调查局的正式文件。\n\n\n\n 概述\n \n编辑\n\n\n爱因斯坦反对残暴的獨裁政府，同时因为自己是犹太人，他反对纳粹政府并在希特勒掌权后不久就离开了德国。在其他人的影響下，愛因斯坦开始支持研制原子弹，以防止希特勒抢先研制成功，为此他与西拉德在1939年8月2日上书当时美国总统罗斯福（爱因斯坦—齐拉德信），建议开始研制核武器。罗斯福接受了这个建议，成立了一个小组负责研究铀作为武器的可行性，几年之后这个小组被曼哈顿计划取代。战后，因為日本已經無條件投降，所以爱因斯坦开始为消除核武器建立和平政府游说，并与利奧·西拉德建立了原子能科学家紧急委员会，因為原子彈並不適合於軍事訓練所使用的武器，他说：“我不知道第三次世界大战会用什么武器，但是我可以肯定，第四次世界大战，人们使用的武器将会是——木棒和石头。”\n爱因斯坦支持犹太复国主义，他支持将犹太人定居点选择在犹太教的古地，并热衷于在耶路撒冷建立希伯来大学。1930年爱因斯坦在希伯来大学发表名为《关于犹太复国主义：爱因斯坦教授的讲座》的文章。爱因斯坦将自己的论文都传给了希伯来大学。但是他反对民族主义，同时也怀疑建立一个犹太国家是不是最好的选择。他一直希望犹太人和阿拉伯人能夠和平居住在同一个地方。1952年，爱因斯坦曾被邀请作新成立的以色列第二任总统，但他拒绝了，理由是自己缺乏必要的人事能力。\n爱因斯坦还联同史懷哲和伯特兰·罗素一起行动，以禁止核试验和核武器战争。在他去世的前几天，他签署了《罗素—爱因斯坦宣言》，这一声明促使帕格沃什科学和世界事务会议召开。他在给罗素的信中写道：\n\n“\n\n亲爱的伯特兰·罗素：\n感谢你4月5日的来信，我很高兴在你这个出色的声明上签字，我还同意你的签名者候选名单。致敬，阿·爱因斯坦\n”\n爱因斯坦对恩格斯的《自然辩证法》手稿阅读完毕后曾做出这样的评价：“爱德华·伯恩斯坦先生把恩格斯的一部关于自然科学内容的手稿交给我，托付我发表意见，看这部手稿是否应该付印。我的意见如下：要是这部手稿出自一位并非作为一个历史人物而引人注意的作者，那么我就不会建议把它付印，因为不论从当代物理学的观点来看，还是从物理学史方面来说，这部手稿的内容都无足轻重。可是，我可以这样设想：如果考虑到这部著作对于阐明恩格斯的思想的意义是一个有趣的文献，那是可以出版的。”[3][4]\n 參閱\n \n编辑\n\n\n爱因斯坦科学出版物列表\n爱因斯坦论文项目\n论动体的电动力学\n玻尔－爱因斯坦论战\n愛因斯坦—齊拉德信\n愛因斯坦的獎章與榮譽\n愛因斯坦的宗教觀\n《为什么要社会主义？》註釋\n \n编辑\n\n\n\n 參考文献\n \n编辑\n\n\n\n^ Fred Jerome; Rodger Taylor. Einstein on Race and Racism. Rutgers University Press. July 2006. ISBN 978-0-8135-3952-2.\n\n^ Rowe, David E.; Schulmann, Robert. Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb. Princeton University Press. 2007-04-16. ISBN 978-0-691-12094-2.\n\n^ 《爱因斯坦文集》第一卷商务印书馆，1977年，第202页\n\n^ Einstein, Albert, : His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb, Princeton University Press: 450, 2007, ISBN 978-0691120942, In 1928, Bernstein told Hook that he had shown Einstein the manuscript of Friedrich Engels's Dialectics and Nature in order to gain his opinion of its scientific value. Einstein allegedly informed Bernstein that the book was of no importance either for contemporary physics or for the history of the subject.\n\n\n 外部链接\n \n编辑\n\n\nAlbert Einstein Archives （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）所有關於愛因斯坦的在線文檔的列表\nEinstein Archives Online（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）加州理工學院和以色列希伯來大學合作的網站，載有愛因斯坦的作品\n介绍爱因斯坦的一个英文站点（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）,站点首页提供整个站点的PDF版本（3.5MB）\n诺贝尔奖官方网站关于阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦生平介绍（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）\n爱因斯坦年表（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]}]}],["createdAt","2023-10-15T07:21:32.174Z"]]}]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["article",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",2],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",4],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_XFzhu-AtMK5wl7uFcWD-1hr3RNc3RwsUmJdC_nBOclI"],["name","熱情的✿金湖✿納特™"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[]}],["text","重溫愛因斯坦大師寫給\n以色列第一任總統哈依姆·威茲曼的信:\n我最大的悲傷是看到\n猶太復國主義者對巴勒斯坦的阿拉伯人\n所做的事和納粹對猶太人所做的事一樣...\n信中還說:\n如果我們無法找到與阿拉伯人\n正當合作、真誠對話的途徑,\n那麼我們就沒有從過去兩千年的痛苦中\n學到任何東西,\n而我們所經歷的一切痛苦也是咎由自\n取。\nIt would be my,greatest\nsadness\nto see Zionists Jews) do to\nPalestinian\nArabs much of what\nNazis did to Jews.\nAlbert Einste"],["id","I_VnLosBAjOeMOklCiAY"],["createdAt","2023-10-14T13:36:26.644Z"]]}],["reply",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","avWlMIsBAjOeMOklDCGG"],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","ZfWgMIsBAjOeMOklPCEz"],["name","Hope"],["avatarUrl","https://www.gravatar.com/avatar/7c713a8a0d2e6d6b008c4c51416d2c71?s=100&d=identicon&r=g"],["level",1]]}],["type","NOT_ARTICLE"],["text","这是虚假信息，根据爱因斯坦档案馆前管理员查证，爱因斯坦从未说过:“我最大的悲伤是看到犹太复国主义者对巴勒斯坦的阿拉伯人所做的事和纳粹对犹太人所做的事一样”，爱因斯坦是犹太复国主义支持者，对于以色列国的建立他感到高兴。详见https://www.raabcollection.com/literary-autographs/einstein-weizmann"],["reference",""],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","Albert Einstein Signed Letter Chaim Weizmann Israel Independence | Raab"],["url","https://www.raabcollection.com/literary-autographs/einstein-weizmann"],["summary","Buying\n Arts & Sciences\n Albert Einstein\n Albert Einstein, Long Devoted to the Idea of a Jewish Homeland, Writes Chaim Weizmann Celebrating the Creation of Israel Just Days After Independence\n \n \n \n\n \n\n \n \n \n\n \n\n \n \n He expresses confidence in the resilience of \"our\" Jewish people, who would “overcome” the catastrophe of the Holocaust, but worries that \"One still cannot say that the powerful men of this earth mean well with us\"\n \n \n \n He congratulates Weizmann on being named President of the Provisional State Council – effectively first President of Israel – on May 16, 1948 “I am confident that our people will overcome this last scare and that you will live to experience the satisfaction of having created a happy Jewish community” ... Read More \n \n \n \n\n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n\n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n He congratulates Weizmann on being named President of the Provisional State Council – effectively first President of Israel – on May 16, 1948\n\n“I am confident that our people will overcome this last scare and that you will live to experience the satisfaction of having created a happy Jewish community”\n\nHe expresses suspicion of the great powers, saying “The game the English play with us is miserable, and the American attitude appears ambivalent.”\nFor almost 2,000 years, ever since the Romans forced the Jewish people to leave their homeland – the Land of Israel, they yearned for Zion. Over the millennia it has often been at the root of what it meant to be a Jew. It was their spiritual homeland; at every Passover, at the seder, they would say “Next year in Jerusalem”, reaffirming the hope that one day the Jewish people might return there. But that hope was forlorn for millennia. The early days of the diaspora saw the Jews scattered, the Middle Ages saw them ghettoed and persecuted, the Crusader era saw them blamed and murdered, then in the Enlightenment and 19th century many emerged from the societies at large to find they were not accepted. Then, in 1896, Theodor Herzl founded the Zionist movement when, in his book “The Jewish State”, he envisioned the founding of an independent Jewish nation. Most Zionists emphasized the memory, emotion and myth linking Jews to the Land of Israel, so their dreamed-of state had to be there.\nIn 1917 Chaim Weizmann, scientist, statesman, and Zionist, persuaded the British government to issue a statement favoring the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine. The statement, which became known as the Balfour Declaration, was, in part, recognition to the Jews for their support of the British against the Turks during World War I. After the war, the League of Nations ratified the declaration and in 1922 appointed Britain to rule Palestine, which had been under Turkish rule for centuries. This was what the British called their Palestine Mandate. This course of events caused Jews to be optimistic about the eventual establishment of a homeland. Their optimism inspired the immigration to Palestine of Jews from many countries, particularly from Germany when Nazi persecution of Jews began. The arrival of many Jewish immigrants in the 1930s awakened Arab fears that Palestine would actually become a national homeland for the Jews, jeopardizing their position there. By 1936 guerrilla fighting had broken out between the Jews and the Arabs. Unable to maintain peace, Britain threw in its lot with the Arabs and in 1939 issued a white paper that restricted Jewish immigration into Palestine.\nThen came the catastrophe that befell the Jewish people – the Holocaust – that murdered 6 million and consumed the ancient Jewish communities in many nations of Europe. When Second World War ended, and all this became known, there was a growing sympathy for the plight of the Jews. But the British would not change their pro-Arab white paper, and the militant Zionist group the Irgun bombed the King David Hotel in Jerusalem in 1946. The hotel was the site of the central offices of the British Mandatory authorities in Palestine, principally the Secretariat of the Government of Palestine and the Headquarters of the British Armed Forces. The British, who were trying to recover from World War II themselves, became tired of being caught between the Jews and Arabs in Palestine, and began to think of leaving the Holy Land. It was now clear to many that the only realistic refuge for the Holocaust survivors would be a Jewish homeland. Creating such a homeland would not merely help the Jews, but would take pressure off of nations (particularly the United States) who had taken in many refugees but did not want to be pressed to take in more because of domestic politics. The situation grew urgent by February 1947 when Arab-Jewish communications had collapsed. So Britain, anxious to rid itself of the thorny, persistent problem, bucked it to the United Nations, formally requesting on April 2, 1947, that the U.N. General Assembly set up the Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP). This committee recommended that the British mandate over Palestine be ended and that the territory be partitioned into two states – one Jewish and one Arab. President Truman instructed the State Department to support the U.N. plan for partition, but did so over the objections of many in Congress and the State Department. Secretary of State George Marshall was particularly strong in urging Truman – unavailingly – to avoid creation of a Jewish homeland, as it would lead to problems with the Arabs. On November 29, 1947, the partition plan was passed by the U.N. General Assembly. Jews around the world rejoiced. Meeting with President Truman in March 1948, Weizmann impressed upon the President the importance of establishing a Jewish state. This was undoubtedly one of the factors for the speedy recognition of the State of Israel by the United States in 1948.\n\nWith British withdrawal imminent, the Provisional Government of Israel was formed on April 12, 1948. It would govern the Jewish community in the month remaining of the British mandate, and then the nation of Israel, until official elections could be held. David Ben Gurion was named head of that government. At midnight on May 14, 1948, the Provisional Government of Israel proclaimed a new State of Israel, establishing the first Jewish state in 2,000 years. The proclamation read: “We declare that, with effect from the moment of the termination of the Mandate being tonight, the eve of Sabbath, the 6th Iyar, 5708 (15th May, 1948), until the establishment of the elected, regular authorities of the State in accordance with the Constitution which shall be adopted by the Elected Constituent Assembly not later than the 1st October 1948, the People’s Council shall act as a Provisional Council of State, and its executive organ, the People’s Administration, shall be the Provisional Government of the Jewish State, to be called ‘Israel’…The State of Israel will be open for Jewish immigration and for the Ingathering of the Exiles; it will foster the development of the country for the benefit of all its inhabitants; it will be based on freedom, justice and peace as envisaged by the prophets of Israel; it will ensure complete equality of social and political rights to all its inhabitants irrespective of religion, race or sex; it will guarantee freedom of religion, conscience, language, education and culture; it will safeguard the Holy Places of all religions; and it will be faithful to the principles of the Charter of the United Nations.”\nThat same day, May 14, Ben Gurion was officially confirmed as prime minister of the Provisional Government, and he formed a government. In one of the first acts of the Provisional Government, the Provisional State Council was formed to serve as both the nation’s legislative and executive authorities. It consisted of 38 members, and Chaim Weizmann was named President of the Provisional Council on May 16, a title tantamount to President of Israel. Thus Israel had a president as head of state, and a prime minister presiding government operations, somewhat on the British model. Weizmann was immediately treated as a head of state, paying a state visit to the White House at President Truman’s invitation a week later on May 25, with all the pomp and circumstance due the president of a sovereign state. Under his leadership, the State Council was responsible for legislating ordinances. Its main ordinances included the Law and Administration Ordinance, the Defense Army of Israel Ordinance, establishing the Israel Defense Forces; and the Currency Ordinance, establishing the Israeli lira as the official state currency. In February 1949 elections were held and the Provisional governing bodies were replaced by permanent one. Weizmann became the first non-provisional, official President of Israel on February 17, 1949.\nAlbert Einstein was a secular Jew, not at all religious in a traditional way. But he understood well the persecution of the Jewish people, and his brilliant scientific works and theories were criticized in some parts as worthless because he was a Jew. In 1921, Weizmann met Einstein when they went on a fund- raiser to establish the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. Also that year, Einstein presented a paper on his Theory of General Relativity at the Sorbonne, the prestigious French university. “If I am proved correct,” he said, “the Germans will call me a German, the Swiss will call me a Swiss citizen, and the French will call me a great scientist. If relativity is proved wrong, the French will call me a Swiss, the Swiss will call me a German, and the Germans will call me a Jew.” Anti-Semitism was openly pursued by the powerful political right in Germany and the emerging Nazi party from 1919, and Einstein was a prime target. As the Nazi movement grew stronger, Einstein helped to organize a group within the Jewish community that advocated a united stand against fascism. But official support of vicious anti-Semitism was making the position of Jews impossible. He became a cultural Zionist. He supported the idea of an institution dedicated to Jewish continuity and called himself a “strong devotee of the Zionist idea.” His speeches and lectures about Zionism were published in 1931. In his 1933 book entitled “The World As I See It”, Einstein’s foreword dedicates the collection “to the Jews of Germany”. After Einstein left Germany in 1932 he never returned. In March 1933 he renounced German citizenship. Einstein’s personal, constant confrontation with anti-Semitism was a nightmare that lasted a dozen years, but he himself pulled through it. However from 1933-1939, he was instrumental in trying to get Jews to safety, finding many Jewish scientists jobs in the United States. By the end of 1945, he, and the world, learned the full truth about the Holocaust.\nIn a letter to Nehru in 1947, Einstein gave his feeling on the Jewish people, their sufferings, and Zionism. “Long before the emergence of Hitler I made the cause of Zionism mine because through it I saw a means of correcting a flagrant wrong….The Jewish people alone has for centuries been in the anomalous position of being victimized and hounded as a people, though bereft of all the rights and protections which even the smallest people normally has…Zionism offered the means of ending this discrimination. Through the return to the land to which they were bound by close historic ties…Jews sought to abolish their pariah status among peoples… The advent of Hitler underscored with a savage logic all the disastrous implications contained in the abnormal situation in which Jews found themselves. Millions of Jews perished… because there was no spot on the globe where they could find sanctuary…The Jewish survivors demand the right to dwell amid brothers, on the ancient soil of their fathers.”\nEinstein followed the events relating to the formation of the State of Israel closely, and he wrote to Weizmann to congratulate him on becoming the first President of the Israel State Council – effectively the first President of Israel.\nImportant typed letter signed, on his blind embossed stationery, in German, Princeton, May 19, 1948, to Weizmann, offering his congratulations, praising his achievements, saying the Jews worldwide are happy about the establishment of Israel, and expressing confidence in the Jewish people’s ability to overcome the disasters that had befallen them. He also expresses suspicion of the intentions of the great international powers and leaders towards the Israeli State and the Jewish people, seeing the British as deplorable and the Americans as vacillating.\n“Dear Mr. Weizmann, I have read with great satisfaction that the Palestinian Jewry has made you head of the new state. This is at least a partial reparation for the ungrateful attitude they have shown towards you and your great accomplishments. One still cannot say that the powerful men of this earth mean well with us. The game the English play with us is miserable, and the American attitude appears ambivalent. \nHowever, I am confident that our people will overcome this last scare and that you will live to experience the satisfaction of having created a happy Jewish community. With heartfelt greetings and best wishes, Your A. Einstein”. By this “last scare”, we believe Einstein refers to the Holocaust.\nThis is the most significant Einstein letter we have seen on his hopes and expectations for the State of Israel, his confidence in the resilience of the Jewish people, and his concern about American policy towards the Jews and their new nation.\nWeizmann died on November 9, 1952. The Foreign Ministry was asked to assist in finding candidates and Ambassador to the United States Abba Ebana approached Einstein to ask if he would accept the offer to serve as president of Israel. In his letter to Einstein, Eban wrote that he was acting at the instructions of Prime Minister Ben Gurion and added that acceptance would require relocation to Israel and acceptance of Israeli nationality, but in appreciation of the importance and scope of his work he would be offered freedom to continue his scientific activity. Upon receiving the invitation, Einstein replied, “I am deeply moved by the offer from our State of Israel, and at once saddened and ashamed that I cannot accept it. All my life I have dealt with objective matters, hence I lack both the natural aptitude and the experience to deal properly with people and to exercise official functions. For these reasons alone I should be unsuited to fulfill the duties of that high office, even if advancing age was not making increasing inroads on my strength. I am the more distressed over these circumstances because my relationship to the Jewish people has become my strongest human bond, ever since I became fully aware of our precarious situation among the nations of the world.” Einstein left his papers to Hebrew University in Jerusalem.\n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\n \n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n Frame, Display, Preserve\n Each frame is custom constructed, using only proper museum archival materials. This includes:The finest frames, tailored to match the document you have chosen. These can period style, antiqued, gilded, wood, etc. Fabric mats, including silk and satin, as well as museum mat board with hand painted bevels. Attachment of the document to the matting to ensure its protection. This \"hinging\" is done according to archival standards. Protective \"glass,\" or Tru Vue Optium Acrylic glazing, which is shatter resistant, 99% UV protective, and anti-reflective. You benefit from our decades of experience in designing and creating beautiful, compelling, and protective framed historical documents.\n Learn more about our Framing Services"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]}]}],["createdAt","2023-10-15T00:03:24.941Z"]]}]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["article",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",1],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",1],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_0mTDUZwl3BVkz8sQLrTnYLE8IN19iVQXskep5e3ugiY"],["name","尊敬的✖杉林✖嬌拉汀"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","地震預測 - 維基百科，自由的百科全書"],["url","https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/地震預測"],["summary","本條目介紹的是地震發生前的預測。關於地震發生後發布警報的系統，請見「地震預警系統」。\n\n合併本條目存在以下問題，請協助改善本條目或在討論頁針對議題發表看法。\n\n\n\n本條目需要精通或熟悉相關主題的編者參與及協助編輯。（2018年2月20日）請邀請適合的人士改善本條目。更多的細節與詳情請參見討論頁。 \n\n\n舊金山灣區震災危害度圖表，描繪了2032年前發生大地震的機率。\n地震預測（earthquake prediction）是預測一次地震發生的時間、地點和規模。地震學家目前仍無法預測地震的確切發生時間[1]，然而對地下構造瞭解的進步，科學家能透過震災危害度評估，提供特定規模的地震在未來數年到數十年之間，發生在某區域的機率，以供建築物和公共建設設定最低防震規範。雖然部份證據表明，對某些區域的地震預報或許有實用價值，然而這些技術的可靠性既未確立，也無法重製，所以地震學家及地質學家一般認為實用的地震預測還是夢想。\n\n\n\n爭議[編輯]\n人們試圖以各種自然現象預測地震，例如電磁場、天氣狀況、地震雲、土壤或地下水的氡氣或氫氣含量、井水水位及動物行為等。\n地震預測迄今仍深具爭議性；一方面是因為資料不足，另一方面則缺乏能證實上述因果聯繫的科學理論。此外，只要做出大量預測，便容易碰巧言中。大部分的預測方法都基於機率模型；由於大地震鮮少發生，其地點與時間又相當集中，目前我們很難鑑定一次「成功」的預測是否只是僥倖而已。\n2009年拉奎拉地震發生後，幾位科學家因未能提出足夠警告，依過失殺人罪被判6年徒刑，在歐美科學界引發一片驚慌和撻伐之聲，學者警告這恐造成寒蟬效應。[2] 厄爾斯特大學（University of Ulster）地震物理學教授史迪西（Sandy Steacy）認為：「若維持原判，這項判決將對義大利和全歐洲的地震科學造成寒蟬效應。」科學工作者關懷聯盟（UCS）學者郝普恩（Michael Halpern）認為：「這項決定荒謬又危險，美國官員應該非難它，義大利總統喬治奧·納波利塔諾（Giorgio Napolitano）應該推翻這個決定。」英國地質調查所（BGS）的穆森（Roger Musson）說：「這6名科學家說的是正確的，任何地震學家都會支持他們的說法。他們盡力提供科學的建議卻被判刑，這是錯的。」\n\n預測方法[編輯]\n電磁波異常[編輯]\n實驗證明，岩石在破裂之前，會釋放出電磁波，然而對於如何影響到大的範圍仍有許多疑問；部份研究則認為是岩石內的石英受到壓力時產生的壓電效應所造成；也有人認為是由於地下水位的改變所引起。\n[3]\n\nDemeter微型衛星[編輯]\nDemeter（希臘神話的女神得墨忒耳）為地震區電磁放射偵測（英文：\"Detection of Electro-Magnetic Emissions Transmitted from Earthquake Regions\"）的縮寫。Demeter衛星由法國國家太空研究中心建造，目前已觀察到某類低頻電磁活動與地震活躍帶的關係，並在2004年9月5日日本東海地方發生芮氏規模7.1地震前一週觀察到明顯的電離層活動及溫度變化[4]。\n\nVAN方法[編輯]\nVAN 是一套由 Varotsos、Alexopoulos 與 Nomicos 三位希臘學者在1980年代提出的地震預測法。此法以埋入地下的金屬棍偵測地震電磁信號（英文：seismic electric signals），部份學者聲稱能預測大於五級的地震，震央誤差在100公里以內、震度誤差在0.7個單位內、時間窗口為2小時至11天。這個方法受到 Sir James Lighthill 的批判性考察[5]，此外也在日本激起一些科學上的興趣[6]。\n\n水氡異常[編輯]\n指地下水中氡氣含量的突然大幅度增加或減少。在多次大地震前已觀測到這種現象，其原因可能是地應力的變化使岩石釋放出一定量的氡氣，從而導致地下水中氡氣含量的變化。\n\n地震活動型態的改變[編輯]\n前震[編輯]\n\n發生在相近時間或空間上的一連串地震，依照發生次序可分為前震、主震和餘震，難以判別主震的地震序列稱之為群震。不同型態的地震序列是由於地殼非均質所引起許多大地震在來臨前，斷層破裂區域的地震活動會明顯的增加，最著名的案例為1975年的海城地震。\n\n動物行為[編輯]\n根據民間傳說，一些動物能預知地震來臨，特別是貓、狗、雞、馬及其他小型動物；大型動物對此則較不敏感。日本學者也曾對鯰魚的行為進行長期研究。\n也有人主張動物的異常行為源於低頻電磁輻射信號。科羅拉多大學的學者證實石英岩斷裂時能藉壓電效應產生電磁活動。這類活動可於震前在斷層線上發生。根據最近的研究，電磁感應器能在統計學的意義上有效預測地震[7]\n中國曾有系統地研究了動物的異常表現，並在1974年12月預測隔年二月發生的海城地震；然而該次預測主要是依靠一系列的強烈前震。關於動物行為的報導通常模稜兩可；目前還無法證明動物能預知地震，即使動物能感知P波，但地震儀對此更敏感[8]。\n\n案例[編輯]\n中國[編輯]\n中國地震預測主要是基於震前的異常事件，例如地下水位、動物行為或前震等等。中國地震學家曾成功預報了1975年2月4日的遼寧省海城大地震[9]，政府在地震前一天疏散了一百萬人。\n但是1976年7月28日唐山大地震事前卻無任何預警，當次地震超過250,000死亡人數以及164,000人員受傷；另一次在1999年11月29日的海城岫巖地震，事前同樣無任何預警。\n\n美國[編輯]\n2004年初，洛杉磯加利福尼亞大學由Vladimir Keilis-Borok帶領的一群科學家預言南加州九月將有一場與2003年San Simeo地震規模相當的地震，機率是百分之五十。\n到了2004年4月，加州地震預報評估委員會（CEPEC）向州政府報告「預測並不可靠，而且涉及的地域廣大（12,400平方哩），所以這些結果不能作為加州採取特殊手段的正當理由。」[10]結果在預報的時間窗口內並無明顯地震。\n\n義大利[編輯]\n2009年拉奎拉地震發生前一個月，一位名叫賈寶洛的實驗室技術人員，根據地面增加的放射性氡氣排放量，研判會有大地震發生。結果他被義大利民防單位指控危言聳聽，還被移送警方偵辦，罪名是製造民眾恐慌。而就在賈寶洛被移送的同時，官方的專家在拉奎拉召開會議，大量接受媒體訪問，保證說不會發生地震。官方的地震測報中心官員後來遭到民眾指控提供不正確的資訊，7名科學家被依過失殺人罪名、求處4年徒刑。\n\n地震預警[編輯]\n\n地震的預警監測比地震預測更可靠，其原理是偵測P波；P波在地殼中的傳遞速度快過具破壞力的S波及雷利波，故可先期偵測。此法只能提早數秒（對於較深及較遠的大地震，或可達數十秒）預警。現時有一套稱作 QuakeGuard™ [11]\n的系統能用這套技術自動應變，以減少人員及財產損失。\n加州大學的 Richard Allen 在發表於《自然》的一篇論文中聲稱：在地震發生的前幾秒，可以從地震儀的紀錄中預判地震大小[12]，它的結果還沒被其它學者認可。若然，則地震的早期預警將能更為有效。\n\n參考文獻[編輯]\n引用[編輯]\n\n\n移至 ^ Earthquake Prediction. Ruth Ludwin, U.S. Geological Survey.\n\n移至 ^ 意地震專家獲刑：地震殺人還是科學家過失殺人. 科學網. 2012-10-31 [2012-11-13].\n\n移至 ^ \nChi-Yu King. Earthquake prediction: Electromagnetic emissions before earthquakes. Nature. 1983, 301 (377).\n\n移至 ^ （法文）Satellite défilant du CNES (France). [2006年10月22日]. （原始內容存檔於2008年5月19日）.\n\n移至 ^ VAN METHOD\n\n移至 ^ Seiya UYEDA, The VAN Method of Short-Term Earthquake Prediction,RIKEN International Frontier Program on Earthquake Research, Tokai University\n\n移至 ^ （英文）T. Bleier and F. Freund. Earthquake [earthquake warning systems]. Spectrum, IEEE. 2005年12月, 42 (12): 22–27 [2006年10月22日].\n\n移至 ^ Woith, Heiko; Petersen, Gesa M.; Hainzl, Sebastian; Dahm, Torsten. Review: Can Animals Predict Earthquakes?. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 2018-04-17. doi:10.1785/0120170313.\n\n移至 ^ （英文）Glenn Richard. Earthquake Prediction: Haicheng, China - 1975. Earth Science Educational Resource Center. 2001 [2006年10月22日]. （原始內容存檔於2006年9月4日）. 石溪大學礦物物理研究所一個討論班的講義\n\n移至 ^ （英文）California Earthquake Prediction Evaluation Council. Report to the Director, Governor's Office of Emergency Services (PDF). 2002年3月 [2006年10月22日]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2008年5月27日）.\n\n移至 ^ （英文）Earthquake P-wave Pre-Detection and Disaster Mitigation Technology. 1999. （原始內容存檔於2008-08-21）.\n\n移至 ^ （英文）Rachel Abercrombie. The start of something big?. Nature. November 9, 2005: 171 [2006年10月22日].\n\n\n來源[編輯]\n\nAceves, Richard L.; Park, Stephen K.; Strauss, David J., Statistical evaluation of the VAN Method using the historic earthquake catalog in Greece, Geophysical Research Letters, 27 May 1996, 23 (11): 1425–1428, Bibcode:1996GeoRL..23.1425A, ISSN 1944-8007, doi:10.1029/96GL01478 （英語）.\nThe Ad Hoc Working Group on the December 2—3, 1990, Earthquake Prediction [AHWG], Evaluation of the December 2–3, 1990, New Madrid Seismic Zone Prediction, 18 October 1990. Included in App. B of Spence等 1993.\nAggarwal, Yash P.; Sykes, Lynn R.; Simpson, David W.; Richards, Paul G., Spatial and Temporal Variations in ts/tp and in P Wave Residuals at Blue Mountain Lake, New York: Application to Earthquake Prediction, Journal of Geophysical Research, 10 February 1975, 80 (5): 718–732, Bibcode:1975JGR....80..718A, doi:10.1029/JB080i005p00718.\nAlexander, David E., The L'Aquila Earthquake of 6 April 2009 and Italian Government Policy on Disaster Response, Journal of Natural Resources Policy Research, 2010, 2 (4): 325–342, doi:10.1080/19390459.2010.511450.\nAllen, Clarence R., Responsibilities in earthquake prediction, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, December 1976, 66 (6): 2069–2074.\nAllen, Clarence R., Earthquake Prediction – 1982 Overview, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, December 1982, 72 (6B): S331–S335.\nAllen, Clarence R., The Southern California Earthquake Prediction of 1976 : A Prediction Unfulfilled (PDF), Proceedings of the Seminar on Earthquake Prediction Case Histories, Geneva, 12–15 October 1982: UNDRO: 77–82, 1983.\nAnagnostopoulos, Stavros A., Letter (PDF), Physics Today, June 1998: 96.\nAnonymous [Haicheng Earthquake Study Delegation], Prediction of the Haicheng Earthquake, Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, May 1977, 58 (5): 236–272, Bibcode:1977EOSTr..58..236., doi:10.1029/EO058i005p00236. 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Douglas; Jordan, Thomas H., Testing alarm-based earthquake predictions (PDF), Geophysical Journal International, 2008, 172 (2): 715–724, Bibcode:2008GeoJI.172..715Z, doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2007.03676.x, （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於29 April 2014） .\nZechar, J. Douglas; Schorlemmer, Danijel; Liukis, Maria; Yu, John; Euchner, Fabian; Maechling, Philip J.; Jordan, Thomas H., The Collaboratory for the Study of Earthquake Predictability perspective on computational earthquake science (PDF), Concurrency and Computation: Practice and Experience, 2010, 22 (12): 1836–1847, doi:10.1002/cpe.1519, （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2014-04-29）.\nZiv, A.; Cochard, A.; Schmittbuhl, J., Does Elastic Rebound Theory apply to Seismic Faults?, (編) Carpinteri, Alberto; Lacidogna, Giuseppi, Selected Papers from the 11th International Conference on Fracture, Turin, Italy, March 20–25, 2005: 51–55, 2007, ISBN 978-0-415-44402-6 (eBook: 978-0-203-93611-5).\nZoback, Mark D., Seismology [book review of Rikitake, Earthquake Forecasting and Warning] (PDF), Science, 21 October 1983, 222 (4621): 319, Bibcode:1983Sci...222..319R, doi:10.1126/science.222.4621.319.\nZoback, Mary Lou, The 1906 earthquake and a century of progress in understanding earthquakes and their hazards (PDF), GSA Today, April–May 2006, 16 (r/5): 4–11, doi:10.1130/GSAT01604.1.\n\n外部連結[編輯]\n美國地質局對地震預測的觀點\n潮汐力與地震的相關研究：發表於1967年與1968年，然而 U.S. Geological Survey: Common Myths About Earthquakes一文的觀點與之相左。\n唐山大地震背後的真相\n日本因預測地震仍有困難廢除地震預知委員會\n《自然》文章稱地震不可預測或影響日本地震預報政策\n參見[編輯]\n\n海城大地震\n地震預警系統\n地震學"],["topImageUrl","https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Eq-prob.jpg"],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","為什麼地震預測這麼難？——《震識》 - PanSci 泛科學"],["url","http://pansci.asia/archives/120710"],["summary","文／潘昌志｜「你地質系的？」不，但我待過地質所，而且還是海研所的碩士。無論在氣象局、小牛頓…都一樣熱愛地科與科普。現在從事試題研發工作，並持續在《地球故事書》、《泛科學》、《國語日報》等專欄分享地科的各種知識，想以科普寫作喚醒人們對地球的愛。\n\n之前我們聊到「拉奎拉的悲劇」時，曾提到當地政府因為短時間內小地震過於頻繁，又加上民間預測專家提出了預測，因此特別出面開記者會因應。為什麼多數地震學家對預測地震這件事這麼「敏感」？又為什麼會這麼不信任地震預測的研究？這是件從根本上就很難解的問題……。\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n過去筆者在地震預測的主題上已撰寫過兩篇文章，在我們離「預測地震」還有多遠？一文中，概述了目前主要地震前兆研究的相關科學進展與難處。而在地震預測，是真有其事還是危言聳聽？難道不能寧可信其有嗎？一文中，則是在探討「如果地震預測的科學還未成熟，任意就粗糙的研究結果發布預測警告，是件多麼危險的事！」\n發布地震預測警報的困境，最理想的狀況是左上（有警報且發震）和右下（沒警報沒地震）。沒警報卻發生嚴重地震（左下）或是發布警報卻沒發生地震（右上），都會造成比未提供預報還多的損失。所以如果沒有成熟且誤報率極低的技術，貿然發布不止是兩難的困境，還可能造成不必要的損失。圖／By J. Johnson – Own work, CC0, wikimedia commons\n但話說回來，為什麼地震預測這麼難？又為什麼很多個人的研究，很難被學者們認同是有科學根據的預測？這並非是研究上的爭議，而是科學方法和科學精神上若不夠嚴謹，這才是學者們更在意的地方。\n無論是「地震的成因是因為板塊錯動？事情沒有那麼簡單！」一文中的歷史脈絡，或是其它科學史故事，都呈現出一種特性：科學知識非但不是一成不變，還會隨著時間流逝不斷「修正」。\n我之所以特別用「修正」而非「推翻」的詞彙來詮釋，是因為科學並不是「誰說了算」，而是當更新的證據出現時，除了需要重新檢視我們過去的看法，還得以同樣嚴謹的角度去檢驗新的證據，所以不管是什麼科學上的新發現或看法，都需要蠻常一段時間去蘊釀，如果這些新看法與當代的科學知識相衝突時，就更需要時間讓觀念融合，又或者是新的觀念本身也存在著缺陷。像是哥白尼的日心說在當時難以被接受，最大的問題就是他將行星公轉軌道假設為正圓形，顯然於觀測事實不符，即使日心說較地心說更接近真實情況，那也是在他之後的克卜勒、牛頓等人的貢獻了。\n回到正題，如果今天某某人聲稱他可以「用某種你沒聽過的觀測手段精準預測地震」，那到底是真還是假？是胡扯嗎？還是跨時代的觀念？\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n如果用這樣的角度或過去的例子來支持這類理論，那就完全錯誤理解科學方法的中心精神。許多科學史上的「修正」，多數要花上數十年以上的時間重覆驗證，而在漫長且嚴苛的驗證過程中，淘汰掉的未必是舊的論點，也可能是新的想法出現瑕疵而被自然消滅。我們現在看到的科學史脈絡，其實也已經是簡化過的故事，它能說明的只是科學的「可否證性」，簡單來說，就是有一個可以否定原來某個理論的鐵證，那舊的理論就該放棄了！\n科學知識永遠不會是唯一真理，因為科學只是用來幫助我們「解釋自然現象」、「理解這世界的運作方式」而已。雖然我們學習科學時，一定會學一堆要「背」的知識，如加減乘除開根號、如牛頓運動定律……等等，但這些知識並非教條，而是代表它在長時間的檢驗及淬鍊之下，已經很難被否證了。而這些知識會變成根基，他就像你在打電動破關一樣，當你得到了裡面已經經歷過事件或是已經破過的關卡存檔資歷時，就不用再重新破關一樣。\n科學之所以可以日新月異，也是拜這樣實事求是的精神所賜，並不是無法檢討過去的基礎理論，而是如果沒有比基礎理論更好的解釋，那就無法取代。\n可是，如果你問我：「我不具地震學背景，又懶得重新了解，那該怎麼分辨是非對錯？」\n在回答這個問題時，我想先說明一件事：當所謂的「某某地震預測理論」告訴你，他們能做出多精準、多好的預測時，真正的科學家不會著眼於他們提出的事證，也就是成功預測的結果，而是這項理論有沒有限制、規範和例外，或是有沒有辦法提出一道合乎基礎的科學定理（以地震而言，起碼就牽涉了物理學）。更重要的是，這個「理論」能不能禁得起重覆驗證、能不能「每個人來做都能得到同樣的結果」、所有的事是否都攤在陽光下供任何人檢驗。\n有很多人都在作這樣的檢驗，像是由專業學者審查的學術期刊、世界各地的學術單位、政府防災單位等等。假如是個實用且有成效的理論，世界各地的學者皆沒有道理反對。\n所以結論就變得很簡單，科學發展至此，可以說已有很完整的方法和檢驗架構，能解釋較多事實的理論就會留下，而不好的理論也就自然淘汰。我們也不太能為此操心什麼。把握好自己能掌握的事，或許更加實際吧！\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n至於什麼是「能掌握的事」？對一般大眾而言，包括像是了解住家的耐震情況、怎麼運用緊急地震速報等知識，都是一種掌握災害的方法。至於科學部分，雖然從我們前面的論述，可以體會到要建立地震預測的新理論難度很高、限制重重，但路難行並非不可行，只是會走得慢，因為需要走的更嚴謹。\n舉個例來說，下面有張在日本高速公路休息區中拍攝到的照片，日本對於許多斷層都作了地震潛勢的研究，除了估算出地震的潛勢，也會評估發生地震時的最大搖晃的「地震動預估」，這種以科學為立基的模擬，多少可以增加對災害發生時的情境想像，或許也是一種可以用來面對未知災害時，增加準備的方式。\n\n或許我們無法預測地震何時到來，但對於一定會來的地震，還是不能掉以輕心。\n本文原發表於《震識：那些你想知道的震事》部落格，或是加入按讚我們的粉絲專頁持續關注。將會得到最科學前緣的地震時事、最淺顯易懂的地震知識、還有最貼近人心的地震故事。\n延伸閱讀：\n\nTED 死都不該讓你看的兩個演講？\n正視地震威脅，活用地震知識－－《震識》對未來的期盼\n\n\n\n您最近是不是也有以下的感受？\n1.各類議題中的科學及專業知識日益複雜，想懂實在太難。\n2.資訊爆炸、真假難辨、覺得無所適從，甚至想不聽不看。\n3.擔心身邊的人受偽科學與謠言所誤，但不知道該怎麼辦。\n這時候你需要「科學思辨力」幫助你，建立自己的邏輯、跨過複雜議題討論的門檻、提升資訊選擇、處理與溝通的能力。\n用 12 堂課讓你成為更能面對未來變化的公民吧！早鳥優惠只到10/2 ，還不快手刀購買！\n課程內容詳見：《科學思辨力》"],["topImageUrl","https://pansci.asia/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/0c24b94d5fd9aa81e437a0e4ca25aa57.jpg"],["error",null]]}]}],["text","出處：https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/地震預測\n\nhttp://pansci.asia/archives/120710"],["id","3lkpsm9mx0klf"],["createdAt","2021-08-10T04:46:13.839Z"]]}],["reply",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","20JxLnsBgBgcuemXbv7f"],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","AVriAlOoyrDaTqlmmqhC"],["name","Lin"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",22]]}],["type","NOT_RUMOR"],["text","地震學家目前仍無法預測地震的確切發生時間。地震測報中心主任郭鎧紋強調，地震科學上是採觀測，而非預測，且地震預測須有嚴謹定義，包括震央、範圍大小和時間等。台大地質系教授陳宏宇表示，歐美及日本等國家學術單位都無法準確預測地震，民間預測更是不可考。"],["reference","https://earthquakewang.pixnet.net/blog/post/296586322"],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","2017年事件簿"],["url","https://earthquakewang.pixnet.net/blog/post/296586322"],["summary","2017/11/23「時間、地點、規模」全都中　他18日神準預測大地震！三立新聞 (感謝多家媒體報導) 2017年10月11日 14:46 【 921斷層活動的重要警訊，全氣象局竟一再誤判？ "],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]}]}],["createdAt","2021-08-10T05:03:11.074Z"]]}]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["article",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",1],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",7],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_8K2j7ulOoiGUESmrLrwuct7AT98L-mYuQab3OFk_45I"],["name","羞澀的烈嶼葛萊蒂絲"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","Hydrogel - Wikipedia"],["url","https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogel"],["summary","A hydrogel is a biphasic material, a mixture of porous, permeable solids and at least 10% by weight or volume of interstitial fluid composed completely or mainly by water.[1] In hydrogels the porous permeable solid is a water insoluble three dimensional network of natural or synthetic polymers and a fluid, having absorbed a large amount of water or biological fluids.[2][3][4] These properties underpin several applications, especially in the biomedical area. Many hydrogels are synthetic, but some are derived from nature.[5][6] The term 'hydrogel' was coined in 1894.[7]Gelatin, here in sheets for cooking, is a hydrogel.Peptide hydrogel formation shown by the inverted vial method.\n\n\nChemistry\n \nEdit\n\n\nClassification\n \nEdit\n\n\nThe crosslinks which bond the polymers of a hydrogel fall under two general categories: physical hydrogels and chemical hydrogels. Chemical hydrogels have covalent cross-linking bonds, whereas physical hydrogels have non-covalent bonds.[citation needed] Chemical hydrogels can result in strong reversible or irreversible gels due to the covalent bonding.[8] Chemical hydrogels that contain reversible covalent cross-linking bonds such as hydrogels of thiomers being cross-linked via disulfide bonds are non-toxic and are used in numerous medicinal products.[9][10][11] Physical hydrogels usually have high biocompatibility, aren’t toxic, and are also easily reversible, by simply changing an external stimulus such as pH, ion concentration(alginate) or temperature(gelatine); they are also used for medical applications.[12][13][14][15][16] Physical crosslinks consist of hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and chain entanglements (among others). A hydrogel generated through the use of physical crosslinks is sometimes called a 'reversible' hydrogel.[12] Chemical crosslinks consist of covalent bonds between polymer strands. Hydrogels generated in this manner are sometimes called 'permanent' hydrogels.\nHydrogels are prepared using a variety of polymeric materials, which can be divided broadly into two categories according to their origin: natural or synthetic polymers. Natural polymers for hydrogel preparation include hyaluronic acid, chitosan, heparin, alginate, gelatin and fibrin.[17] Common synthetic polymers include polyvinyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, sodium polyacrylate, acrylate polymers and copolymers thereof.[5] Whereas natural hydrogels are usually non-toxic, and often provides other advantages for medical use, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, antibiotic/antifungal effect and improve regeneration of nearby tissue, their stability and strength is usually much lower than synthetic hydrogels.[18] There are also synthetic hydrogels than can be used for medical applications, such as Polyethylene glycol (PEG), polyacrylate, and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP).[19]\nPreparation\n \nEdit\n\n\n Simplified scheme to show the self-assembly process involved in hydrogel formation.There are two suggested mechanisms behind physical hydrogel formation, the first one being the gelation of nanofibrous peptide assemblies, usually observed for oligopeptide precursors. The precursors self-assemble into fibers, tapes, tubes, or ribbons that entangle to form non-covalent cross-links. The second mechanism involves non-covalent interactions of cross-linked domains that are separated by water-soluble linkers, and this is usually observed in longer multi-domain structures.[20] Tuning of the supramolecular interactions to produce a self-supporting network that does not precipitate, and is also able to immobilize water which is vital for to gel formation. Most oligopeptide hydrogels have a β-sheet structure, and assemble to form fibers, although α-helical peptides have also been reported.[21][22] The typical mechanism of gelation involves the oligopeptide precursors self-assemble into fibers that become elongated, and entangle to form cross-linked gels.\nOne notable method of initiating a polymerization fuving involves the use of light as a stimulus. In this method, photoinitiators, compounds that cleave from the absorption of photons, are added to the precursor solution which will become the hydrogel. When the precursor solution is exposed to a concentrated source of light, usually ultraviolet irradiation, the photoinitiators will cleave and form free radicals, which will begin a polymerization reaction that forms crosslinks between polymer strands. This reaction will cease if the light source is removed, allowing the amount of crosslinks formed in the hydrogel to be controlled.[23] The properties of a hydrogel are highly dependent on the type and quantity of its crosslinks, making photopolymerization a popular choice for fine-tuning hydrogels. This technique has seen considerable use in cell and tissue engineering applications due to the ability to inject or mold a precursor solution loaded with cells into a wound site, then solidify it in situ.[24][23]Physically crosslinked hydrogels can be prepared by different methods depending on the nature of the crosslink involved. Polyvinyl alcohol hydrogels are usually produced by the freeze-thawed technique. In this, the solution is frozen for a few hours, then thawed at room temperature, and the cycle is repeated until a strong and stable hydrogel is formed.[25] Alginate hydrogels are formed by ionic interactions between alginate and double-charged cations. A salt, usually calcium chloride, is dissolved into an aqueous sodium alginate solution, that causes the calcium ions to create ionic bonds between alginate chains.[26] Gelatin hydrogels are formed by temperature change. A water solution of gelatin forms an hydrogel at temperatures below 37-35 °C, as Van der Waals interactions between collagen fibers become stronger than thermal molecular vibrations.[27]\nPeptides based hydrogels\n \nEdit\n\n\nPeptides based hydrogels possess exceptional biocompatibility and biodegradability qualities, giving rise to their wide use of applications, particularly in biomedicine; as such, their physical properties can be fine-tuned in order to maximise their use. Methods to do this are: modulation of the amino acid sequence, pH, chirality, and increasing the number of aromatic residues.[28] The order of amino acids within the sequence is crucial for gelation, as has been shown many times. In one example, a short peptide sequence Fmoc-Phe-Gly readily formed a hydrogel, whereas Fmoc-Gly-Phe failed to do so as a result of the two adjacent aromatic moieties being moved, hindering the aromatic interactions.[29][30] Altering the pH can also have similar effects, an example involved the use of the naphthalene (Nap) modified dipeptides Nap-Gly-Ala, and Nap- Ala-Gly, where a drop in pH induced gelation of the former, but led to crystallisation of the latter.[31] 74 A controlled pH decrease method using glucono-δ-lactone (GdL), where the GdL is hydrolysed to gluconic acid in water is a recent strategy that has been developed as a way to form homogeneous and reproducible hydrogels.[32][33] The hydrolysis is slow, which allows for a uniform pH change, and thus resulting in reproducible homogenous gels. In addition to this, the desired pH can be achieved by altering the amount of GdL added. The use of GdL has been used various times for the hydrogelation of Fmoc and Nap-dipeptides.[32][33] In another direction, Morris et al reported the use of GdL as a ‘molecular trigger’ to predict and control the order of gelation.[34] Chirality also plays an essential role in gel formation, and even changing the chirality of a single amino acid from its natural L-amino acid to its unnatural D-amino acid can significantly impact the gelation properties, with the natural forms not forming gels.[35] Furthermore, aromatic interactions play a key role in hydrogel formation as a result of π- π stacking driving gelation, shown by many studies.[36][37]\nOther\n \nEdit\n\n\nHydrogels also possess a degree of flexibility very similar to natural tissue due to their significant water content. As responsive \"smart materials\", hydrogels can encapsulate chemical systems which upon stimulation by external factors such as a change of pH may cause specific compounds such as glucose to be liberated to the environment, in most cases by a gel–sol transition to the liquid state. Chemomechanical polymers are mostly also hydrogels, which upon stimulation change their volume and can serve as actuators or sensors.\n\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA micropump based on a hydrogel bar (4×0.3×0.05 mm size) actuated by applied voltage. This pump can be continuously operated with a 1.5 V battery for at least 6 months.[38]\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA short-peptide-based hydrogel matrix, capable of holding about one hundred times its own weight in water. Developed as a medical dressing.\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPhoto of the same short-peptide-based hydrogel, held in forceps to demonstrate its stiffness and transparency.\n\n\t\t\nMechanical properties\n \nEdit\n\n\nHydrogels have been investigated for diverse applications. By modifying the polymer concentration of a hydrogel (or conversely, the water concentration), the Young's modulus, shear modulus, and storage modulus can vary from 10 Pa to 3 MPa, a range of about five orders of magnitude.[39] A similar effect can be seen by altering the crosslinking concentration.[39] This much variability of the mechanical stiffness is why hydrogels are so appealing for biomedical applications, where it is vital for implants to match the mechanical properties of the surrounding tissues.[40] Characterizing the mechanical properties of hydrogels can be difficult especially due to the differences in mechanical behavior that hydrogels have in comparison to other traditional engineering materials. In addition to its rubber elasticity and viscoelasticity, hydrogels have an additional time dependent deformation mechanism which is dependent on fluid flow called poroelasticity. These properties are extremely important to consider while performing mechanical experiments. Some common mechanical testing experiments for hydrogels are tension, compression (confined or unconfined), indentation, shear rheometry or dynamic mechanical analysis.[39]Hydrogels have two main regimes of mechanical properties: rubber elasticity and viscoelasticity:\n\nRubber elasticity\n \nEdit\n\n\nIn the unswollen state, hydrogels can be modelled as highly crosslinked chemical gels, in which the system can be described as one continuous polymer network. In this case:\nwhere G is the shear modulus, k is the Boltzmann constant, T is temperature, Np is the number of polymer chains per unit volume, ρ is the density, R is the ideal gas constant, and is the (number) average molecular weight between two adjacent cross-linking points. can be calculated from the swell ratio, Q, which is relatively easy to test and measure.[39]For the swollen state, a perfect gel network can be modeled as:[39]In a simple uniaxial extension or compression test, the true stress, , and engineering stress, , can be calculated as:\nwhere is the stretch.[39]\nViscoelasticity\n \nEdit\n\n\nFor hydrogels, their elasticity comes from the solid polymer matrix while the viscosity originates from the polymer network mobility and the water and other components that make up the aqueous phase.[41] Viscoelastic properties of a hydrogel is highly dependent on the nature of the applied mechanical motion. Thus, the time dependence of these applied forces is extremely important for evaluating the viscoelasticity of the material.[42]Physical models for viscoelasticity attempt to capture the elastic and viscous material properties of a material. In an elastic material, the stress is proportional to the strain while in a viscous material, the stress is proportional to the strain rate. The Maxwell model is one developed mathematical model for linear viscoelastic response. In this model, viscoelasticity is modeled analogous to an electrical circuit with a Hookean spring, that represents the Young's modulus, and a Newtonian dashpot that represents the viscosity. A material that exhibit properties described in this model is a Maxwell material. Another physical model used is called the Kelvin-Voigt Model and a material that follow this model is called a Kelvin–Voigt material.[43] In order to describe the time-dependent creep and stress-relaxation behavior of hydrogel, a variety of physical lumped parameter models can be used.[39] These modeling methods vary greatly and are extremely complex, so the empirical Prony Series description is commonly used to describe the viscoelastic behavior in hydrogels.[39]In order to measure the time-dependent viscoelastic behavior of polymers dynamic mechanical analysis is often performed. Typically, in these measurements the one side of the hydrogel is subjected to a sinusoidal load in shear mode while the applied stress is measured with a stress transducer and the change in sample length is measured with a strain transducer.[42] One notation used to model the sinusoidal response to the periodic stress or strain is:\n\n in which G' is the real (elastic or storage) modulus, G\" is the imaginary (viscous or loss) modulus.\n\nPoroelasticity\n \nEdit\n\n\nPoroelasticity is a characteristic of materials related to the migration of solvent through a porous material and the concurrent deformation that occurs.[39] Poroelasticity in hydrated materials such as hydrogels occurs due to friction between the polymer and water as the water moves through the porous matrix upon compression. This causes a decrease in water pressure, which adds additional stress upon compression. Similar to viscoelasticity, this behavior is time dependent, thus poroelasticity is dependent on compression rate: a hydrogel shows softness upon slow compression, but fast compression makes the hydrogel stiffer. This phenomenon is due to the friction between the water and the porous matrix is proportional to the flow of water, which in turn is dependent on compression rate. Thus, a common way to measure poroelasticity is to do compression tests at varying compression rates.[44] Pore size is an important factor in influencing poroelasticity. The Kozeny–Carman equation has been used to predict pore size by relating the pressure drop to the difference in stress between two compression rates.[44]Poroelasticity is described by several coupled equations, thus there are few mechanical tests that relate directly to the poroelastic behavior of the material, thus more complicated tests such as indentation testing, numerical or computational models are utilized. Numerical or computational methods attempt to simulate the three dimensional permeability of the hydrogel network.\n\nEnvironmental response\n \nEdit\n\n\nThe most commonly seen environmental sensitivity in hydrogels is a response to temperature.[45] Many polymers/hydrogels exhibit a temperature dependent phase transition, which can be classified as either an upper critical solution temperature (UCST) or lower critical solution temperature (LCST). UCST polymers increase in their water-solubility at higher temperatures, which lead to UCST hydrogels transitioning from a gel (solid) to a solution (liquid) as the temperature is increased (similar to the melting point behavior of pure materials). This phenomenon also causes UCST hydrogels to expand (increase their swell ratio) as temperature increases while they are below their UCST.[45] However, polymers with LCSTs display an inverse (or negative) temperature-dependence, where their water-solubility decreases at higher temperatures. LCST hydrogels transition from a liquid solution to a solid gel as the temperature is increased, and they also shrink (decrease their swell ratio) as the temperature increases while they are above their LCST.[45]Applications can dictate for diverse thermal responses. For example, in the biomedical field, LCST hydrogels are being investigated as drug delivery systems due to being injectable (liquid) at room temp and then solidifying into a rigid gel upon exposure to the higher temperatures of the human body.[45] There are many other stimuli that hydrogels can be responsive to, including: pH, glucose, electrical signals, light, pressure, ions, antigens, and more.[45]\nAdditives\n \nEdit\n\n\nThe mechanical properties of hydrogels can be fine-tuned in many ways beginning with attention to their hydrophobic properties.[45][46] Another method of modifying the strength or elasticity of hydrogels is to graft or surface coat them onto a stronger/stiffer support, or by making superporous hydrogel (SPH) composites, in which a cross-linkable matrix swelling additive is added.[6] Other additives, such as nanoparticles and microparticles, have been shown to significantly modify the stiffness and gelation temperature of certain hydrogels used in biomedical applications.[47][48][49]\nProcessing techniques\n \nEdit\n\n\nWhile a hydrogel's mechanical properties can be tuned and modified through crosslink concentration and additives, these properties can also be enhanced or optimized for various applications through specific processing techniques. These techniques include electro-spinning, 3D/4D printing, self-assembly, and freeze-casting. One unique processing technique is through the formation of multi-layered hydrogels to create a spatially-varying matrix composition and by extension, mechanical properties. This can be done by polymerizing the hydrogel matrixes in a layer by layer fashion via UV polymerization. This technique can be useful in creating hydrogels that mimic articular cartilage, enabling a material with three separate zones of distinct mechanical properties.[50]Another emerging technique to optimize hydrogel mechanical properties is by taking advantage of the Hofmeister series. Due to this phenomenon, through the addition of salt solution, the polymer chains of a hydrogel aggregate and crystallize, which increases the toughness of the hydrogel. This method, called \"salting out\", has been applied to poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels by adding a sodium sulfate salt solution.[51] Some of these processing techniques can be used synergistically with each other to yield optimal mechanical properties. Directional freezing or freeze-casting is another method in which a directional temperature gradient is applied to the hydrogel is another way to form materials with anisotropic mechanical properties. Utilizing both the freeze-casting and salting-out processing techniques on poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels to induce hierarchical morphologies and anisotropic mechanical properties.[52] Directional freezing of the hydrogels helps to align and coalesce the polymer chains, creating anisotropic array honeycomb tube-like structures while salting out the hydrogel yielded out a nano-fibril network on the surface of these honeycomb tube-like structures. While maintaining a water content of over 70%, these hydrogels' toughness values are well above those of water-free polymers such as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), Kevlar, and synthetic rubber. The values also surpass the toughness of natural tendon and spider silk.[52]\nApplications\n \nEdit\n\n\nSoft contact lenses\n \nEdit\n\n\n Molecular structure of silicone hydrogel used in flexible, oxygen-permeable contact lenses.[53]The dominant material for contact lenses are acrylate-siloxane hydrogels. They have replaced hard contact lenses. One of their most attractive properties is oxygen permeability, which is required since the cornea lacks vasculature.\n\nResearch\n \nEdit\n\n\n Human mesenchymal stem cell interacting with 3D hydrogel - imaged with label-free live cell imaging An adhesive bandage with a hydrogel pad, used for blisters and burns. The central gel is clear, the adhesive waterproof plastic film is clear, the backing is white and blue.Coatings for gas evolution reaction electrodes for efficient bubble detachment [54][55][56]\nBreast implants\nContact lenses (silicone hydrogels, polyacrylamides, polymacon)\nWater sustainability: Hydrogels have emerged as promising materials platforms for solar-powered water purification,[57] water disinfection,[58] and Atmospheric water generator.[59]\nDisposable diapers where they absorb urine, or in sanitary napkins[24]\nDressings for healing of burn or other hard-to-heal wounds. Wound gels are excellent for helping to create or maintain a moist environment.\nEEG and ECG medical electrodes using hydrogels composed of cross-linked polymers (polyethylene oxide, polyAMPS and polyvinylpyrrolidone)\nEncapsulation of quantum dots\nEnvironmentally sensitive hydrogels (also known as 'smart gels' or 'intelligent gels'). These hydrogels have the ability to sense changes of pH, temperature, or the concentration of metabolite and release their load as result of such a change.[60][61][62]\nFibers\nGlue\nGranules for holding soil moisture in arid areas\nAir bubble-repellent (superaerophobicity). Can improve the performance and stability of electrodes for water electrolysis.[63]\nCulturing cells: Hydrogel-coated wells have been used for cell culture.[64]\nBiosensors: Hydrogels that are responsive to specific molecules,[65] such as glucose or antigens, can be used as biosensors, as well as in DDS.[66]\nCell carrier: Injectable hydrogels can be used to carry drugs or cells for applications in tissue regeneration or 3D bioprinting.[67][68][69] Hydrogels with reversible chemistry are required to allow for fluidization during injection/printing followed by self-healing of the original hydrogel structure.[70]\nInvestigate cell biomechanical functions combined with holotomography microscopy\nProvide absorption, desloughing and debriding of necrotic and fibrotic tissue\nTissue engineering scaffolds. When used as scaffolds, hydrogels may contain human cells to repair tissue. They mimic 3D microenvironment of cells.[71] Materials include agarose, methylcellulose, hyaluronan, elastin-like polypeptides, and other naturally derived polymers.\nSustained-release drug delivery systems. Ionic strength, pH and temperature can be used as a triggering factor to control the release of the drug.[72]\nWindow coating/replacement: Hydrogels are under consideration for reducing infrared light absorption by 75%.[73] Another approach reduced interior temperature using a temperature-responsive hydrogel.[74]\nThermodynamic electricity generation: When combined with ions allows for heat dissipation for electronic devices and batteries and converting the heat exchange to an electrical charge.[75]\nWater gel explosives\nControlled release of agrochemicals (pesticides and fertilizer)\nTalin Shock Absorbing Materials - protein-based hydrogels that can absorb supersonic impacts[76]Biomaterials\n \nEdit\n\n\nImplanted or injected hydrogels have the potential to support tissue regeneration by mechanical tissue support, localized drug or cell delivery, local cell recruitement or immunomodulation, or encapsulation of nanoparticles for local photothermal or brachytherapy.[70] Polymeric drug delivery systems have overcome challenge due to their biodegradability, biocompatibility, and anti-toxicity.[77][78] Materials such as collagen, chitosan, cellulose, and poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) have been implemented extensively for drug delivery to organs such as eye,[79] nose, kidneys,[80] lungs,[81] intestines,[82] skin[83] and brain. Future work is focused on reducing toxicity, improving biocompatibility, expanding assembly techniques[84]Hydrogels have been considered as vehicles for drug delivery.[85][67][68][69] They can also be made to mimic animal mucosal tissues to be used for testing mucoadhesive properties.[86][87] They have been examined for use as reservoirs in topical drug delivery; particularly ionic drugs, delivered by iontophoresis.\n\nReferences\n \nEdit\n\n\n This article incorporates text by Jessica Hutchinson available under the CC BY 3.0 license.\n\n\n^ Wichterle, O.; Lím, D. (1960-01-01). \"Hydrophilic Gels for Biological Use\". Nature. 185 (4706): 117–118. Bibcode:1960Natur.185..117W. doi:10.1038/185117a0. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4211987.\n\n^ Shrivastava, Priya; Vishwakarma, Nikhar; Gautam, Laxmikant; Vyas, Suresh P. 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PMID 26440734.\n\n\nFurther reading\n \nEdit"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","Particle size analysis - Wikipedia"],["url","https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_size_analysis"],["summary","Particle size analysis, particle size measurement, or simply particle sizing, is the collective name of the technical procedures, or laboratory techniques which determines the size range, and/or the average, or mean size of the particles in a powder or liquid sample.\nParticle size analysis is part of particle science, and it is generally carried out in particle technology laboratories.\nThe particle size measurement is typically achieved by means of devices, called Particle Size Analyzers (PSA), which are based on different technologies, such as high definition image processing, analysis of Brownian motion, gravitational settling of the particle and light scattering (Rayleigh and Mie scattering) of the particles.\nThe particle size can have considerable importance in a number of industries including the chemical, food, mining, forestry, agriculture, cosmetics, pharmaceutical, energy, and aggregate industries.\n\n\n\nParticle size analysis based on light scattering\n \nEdit\n\n\nParticle size analysis based on light scattering has widespread application in many fields, as it allows relatively easy optical characterization of samples enabling improved quality control of products in many industries including pharmaceutical, food, cosmetic, and polymer production.[1] Recent years have seen many advancements in light scattering technologies for particle characterization.\nFor particles in the lower nanometer to lower micrometer range, dynamic light scattering (DLS)[2] has now become an industry standard technique. It is also by far the most widely used light scattering technique for particle characterization in the academic world.[3] This method analyzes the fluctuations of scattered light by particles in suspension when illuminated with a laser to determine the velocity of the Brownian motion, which can then be used to obtain the hydrodynamic size of particles using the Stokes-Einstein relationship. DLS is a fast and non-invasive technique, which is also precise and highly repeatable.[4] Furthermore, since the technique is based on the measurement of light scattering as a function of time, the technique is considered absolute and the DLS instruments do not require calibration.[3] Amongst its disadvantages is the fact that it does not properly resolve highly polydisperse samples, while the presence of large particles can affect size accuracy. Other scattering techniques have emerged, such as nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA),[5] which tracks individual particle movement through scattering using image recording. NTA also measures the hydrodynamic size of particles from the diffusion coefficient but is capable of overcoming some of the limitations posed by DLS.[6] The next generation of NTA technology is called interferometric nanoparticle tracking analysis (iNTA)[7] and is based on the interferometric scattering microscopy (iSCAT). In contrast to NTA, iNTA has a superior size resolution and gives access to the effective refractive index of the particles.\nWhile the above-mentioned techniques are best suited for measuring particles typically in the submicron region, particle size analyzers (PSAs) based on static light scattering or laser diffraction (LD)[8] have become the most popular and widely used instruments for measuring particles from hundreds of nanometers to several millimeters. Similar scattering theory is also utilized in systems based on non-electromagnetic wave propagation, such as ultrasonic analyzers. In LD PSAs, a laser beam is used to irradiate a dilute suspension of particles. The light scattered by the particles in the forward direction is focused by a lens onto a large array of concentric photodetector rings. The smaller the particle is, the larger the scattering angle of the laser beam is. Thus, by measuring the angle-dependent scattered intensity, one can infer the particle size distribution using Fraunhofer or Mie scattering models.[9][10] In the latter case, prior knowledge of the refractive index of the particle being measured as well as the dispersant is required.\nCommercial LD PSAs have gained popularity due to their broad dynamic range, rapid measurement, high reproducibility and the capability to perform online measurements. However, these devices are generally large in size (~700 × 300 × 450 mm), heavy (~30 kg) and expensive (in the 50–200 K€ range). On the one hand, the large size of common devices is due to the large distance needed between the sample and the detectors to provide the desired angular resolution. Furthermore, their high price is mainly due to the use of expensive laser sources and a large number of detectors, i.e., one sensor for each scattering angle to be monitored. Some commercial devices contain up to twenty sensors. This complexity of commercial LD PSAs, together with the fact that they often require maintenance and highly trained personnel, make them impractical in the majority of online industrial applications, which require the installation of probes in processing environments, often at multiple locations. An alternative method for PSD is cuvette-based SPR technique, that simultaneously measures the particle size ranging 10 nm-10 µm and concentration in a standard spectrophotometer. The optical filter inserted in the cuvette consists of nano-photonic crystals with very high angular resolution, which enables the analysis of PSD by automatically quantifying Mie scattering and Rayleigh scattering.[11]The application of LD PSAs is also normally restricted to dilute suspensions. This is because the optical models used to estimate the particle size distribution (PSD) are based on a single scattering approximation. In practice, most industrial processes require measuring concentrated suspensions, where multiple scattering becomes a prominent effect. Multiple scattering in dense media leads to an underestimation of the particle size since the light scattered by the particles encounters diffraction points multiple times before reaching the detector, which in turn increases the apparent scattering angle. To overcome this issue, LD PSAs require appropriate sampling and dilution systems, which increase capital investments and operational costs. Another approach is to apply multiple scattering correction models together with the optical models to compute the PSD. A large number of algorithms for multiple scattering correction can be found in the literature.[12][13][14] However, these algorithms typically require implementing a complex correction, which increases the computation time and is often not suitable for online measurements.[14] An alternative approach to compute the PSD without the use of optical models and complex correction factors is to apply machine learning (ML) techniques.[15]\nPaints and Coatings\n \nEdit\n\n\nTypically, paints and coatings are subjected to multiple rounds of particle size analysis, as the particle size of the individual components influences parameters as diverse as hint strength, hiding power, gloss, viscosity, stability and weather resistance.[16]\nMining and Building Materials\n \nEdit\n\n\nThe size of materials being processed in an operation is very important. Having oversize material being conveyed will cause damage to equipment and slow down production. Particle-size analysis also helps the effectiveness of SAG Mills when crushing material.\nIn the building industry, the particle size can directly affect the strength of the final material, as it observed for cement.[17] Two of the most used techniques used for the particle size characterization of minerals are sieving and laser diffraction. These techniques are faster and cheaper compared to image-based techniques.\n\nFood and Beverages Industry\n \nEdit\n\n\nThe optimization of the particle size distribution facilitates the pumping, mixing and transportation of foodstuff. Particle size analysis is usually done with any milled food, such as coffee, flour, cocoa powder. It is especially helpful with chocolate quality to ensure there is a consistent taste and feeling when eaten. Furthermore, in the case of food emulsions, particle size analysis is relevant to predict stability and shelf-life, and optimize homogenization.[18]\nAgriculture\n \nEdit\n\n\nThe gradation of soils, or soil texture, affects water and nutrient holding and drainage capabilities. For sand-based soils, particle size can be the dominant characteristic affecting soil performances and hence crop. Sieving has long been the technique of choice for soil texture analysis, although laser diffraction instruments are increasingly used as they considerably speed up the analytical process, and provide highly reproducible results.[19]Particle size analysis in the agriculture industry is paramount because unwanted materials will contaminate products if they are not detected. By having an automated particle size analyzer, companies can closely monitor their processes.\n\nForestry\n \nEdit\n\n\nWood particles used to make various types of products rely on particle-size analysis to maintain high quality standards. By doing so, companies reduce waste and become more productive.\n\nAggregates\n \nEdit\n\n\nHaving properly sized particles allow aggregate companies to create long-lasting roads and other products. Particle size analysis is also routinely conducted on bitumen emusions to predict their stability and their behavior.[20]\nBiology\n \nEdit\n\n\nParticle size analyzers are used also in biology to measure protein aggregation.\n\n Particle size distribution of antiviral vaccines subjected to cold-chain disruptions, analyzed by Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS)DLS is a particularly appreciated technique for the characterization of nanoparticles designed for drug delivery, such as vaccines. DLS instruments are for instance part of the quality control process for mRNA vaccines formulated in lipid nanoparticle carriers.[21] \n\nSelecting the most appropriate technique for size analysis\n \nEdit\n\n\nThere is a large number of methods for the determination of particle size, and it is important to acknowledge that these different methods are not expected to give identical results. The size of a particle depends on the method used for its measurement, and it is important to choose the method that is most relevant to the application.\nThe \"See also\" section covers many of these techniques. In most of them, the particle size is inferred from a measurement of, for example: light scattering; electrical resistance; particle motion, rather than a direct measurement of particle diameter. This enables rapid measurement of a particle size distribution by an instrument, but does require some form of calibration or assumptions regarding the nature of the particles. Most often this includes the assumption of spherical particles, thus giving a result which is an equivalent spherical diameter. Thus, it is usual for measured particle size distributions to be different when comparing the results between different equipment. The most appropriate method to use is normally the one where the method is aligned to the end use of the data.\nFor example, to choose whether a chemical compound should be measured by dynamic light scattering or laser diffraction, one generally considers the expected size range, the sample type (liquid or solid), the amount of sample available, the chemical stability, as well its application field.[22] If designing a sedimentation vessel, then a sedimentation technique for sizing is most relevant. However, this approach is often not possible, and an alternative technique must be used. An online Expert system to assist in the selection (and elimination) of particle size analysis equipment has been developed.[23]\nSee also\n \nEdit\n\n\nSieving\nSieve analysis\nLaser diffraction analysis\nSedimentation\nElutriation\nMicroscope counting\nCoulter counter\nDynamic light scattering\nImaging Particle Analysis\nAerosol mass spectrometry\nObscuration SPOSReferences\n \nEdit\n\n\n\n^ Valsangkar, A. J. Principles, methods and applications of particle size analysis.\nCan. Geotech. J. 29, 1006 (1992).\n\n^ Stetefeld, J., McKenna, S. A. & Patel, T. R. Dynamic light scattering: a practical\nguide and applications in biomedical sciences. Biophysical Rev. 8, 409–427\n(2016).\n\n^ Jump up to: a b Xu, Renliang (2015-02-01). \"Light scattering: A review of particle characterization applications\". Particuology. 18: 11–21. doi:10.1016/j.partic.2014.05.002. ISSN 1674-2001.\n\n^ \"Iso 22412:2017\".\n\n^ Kim, A. et al. Validation of size estimation of nanoparticle tracking analysis on\npolydisperse macromolecule assembly. Sci. Rep. 9, 2639 (2019).\n\n^ Kim, A., Bernt, W. & Cho, N. J. Improved size determination by nanoparticle tracking analysis: influence of recognition radius. Anal. Chem. 91, 9508–9515\n(2019).\n\n^ Kashkanova, Anna D.; Blessing, Martin; Gemeinhardt, André; Soulat, Didier; Sandoghdar, Vahid (2022). \"Precision size and refractive index analysis of weakly scattering nanoparticles in polydispersions\". Nature Methods. 19 (5): 586–593. doi:10.1038/s41592-022-01460-z. PMC 9119850. PMID 35534632.\n\n^ Blott, S. J. et al. Particle size analysis by laser diffraction. Geological Society,\nLondon, Special Publications. 232, 63–73 (2004).\n\n^ Vargas-Ubera, J., Aguilar, J. F. & Gale, D. M. Reconstruction of particle-size distributions from light-scattering patterns using three inversion methods. Appl. Opt. 46, 124–132 (2007).\n\n^ Ye, Z. & Jiang, X. P. Wang, Z. C. 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Particuology 7, 76–82 (2009).\n\n^ Hussain, R., Noyan, M. A., Woyessa, G. et al. An ultra-compact particle size analyser using a CMOS image sensor and machine learning. Light Sci Appl 9, 21 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-020-0255-6\n\n^ \"The Importance of Particle Size in Liquid Coatings\". www.pfonline.com. Retrieved 2022-05-25.\n\n^ Zhang, Y. M.; Napier-Munn, T. J. (1995-06-01). \"Effects of particle size distribution, surface area and chemical composition on Portland cement strength\". Powder Technology. 83 (3): 245–252. doi:10.1016/0032-5910(94)02964-P. ISSN 0032-5910.\n\n^ Ransmark, Eva; Svensson, Birgitta; Svedberg, Ingrid; Göransson, Anders; Skoglund, Tomas (2019-09-01). \"Measurement of homogenisation efficiency of milk by laser diffraction and centrifugation\". International Dairy Journal. 96: 93–97. doi:10.1016/j.idairyj.2019.04.011. ISSN 0958-6946. S2CID 155705640.\n\n^ Yang, Yang; Wang, Lijuan; Wendroth, Ole; Liu, Baoyuan; Cheng, Congcong; Huang, Tingting; Shi, Yangzi (March 2019). \"Is the Laser Diffraction Method Reliable for Soil Particle Size Distribution Analysis?\". Soil Science Society of America Journal. 83 (2): 276–287. Bibcode:2019SSASJ..83..276Y. doi:10.2136/sssaj2018.07.0252. ISSN 0361-5995. S2CID 134971922.\n\n^ Wang, Fazhou; Liu, Yunpeng; Zhang, Yunhua; Hu, Shuguang (2012-03-01). \"Experimental study on the stability of asphalt emulsion for CA mortar by laser diffraction technique\". Construction and Building Materials. 28 (1): 117–121. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.07.059. ISSN 0950-0618.\n\n^ Mao, Qunying; Xu, Miao; He, Qian; Li, Changgui; Meng, Shufang; Wang, Yiping; Cui, Bopei; Liang, Zhenglun; Wang, Junzhi (2021-05-18). \"COVID-19 vaccines: progress and understanding on quality control and evaluation\". Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy. 6 (1): 199. doi:10.1038/s41392-021-00621-4. ISSN 2059-3635. PMC 8129697. PMID 34006829.\n\n^ \"Particle size analysis methods: Dynamic light scattering vs. laser diffraction :: Anton Paar Wiki\". Anton Paar. Retrieved 2022-05-25.\n\n^ Expert system for equipment selection"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","Bill Gates' Plan to Turn Humans into Walking WiFi with Hydrogel Technology by 2027"],["url","https://rumble.com/v2n752e-bill-gates-plan-to-turn-humans-into-walking-wifi-with-hydrogel-technology-b.html"],["summary","Hydrogel being used by Bill Gates Foundation & Mastercard on people of West Africa to connect their funds through the vax in their body, and they are using for predictive policing"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","地球正義聯盟～資料館"],["url","https://t.me/EarthJusticeLeague_DataLibrary"],["summary","地球正義聯盟延伸的資料收藏館\t\t地球正義聯盟～\thttps://t.me/joinchat/fNNUUkcLo2gzMThk\t\t以馬地平資料館～\thttps://t.me/EmanuelFlatEarthLibrary\n"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","Telegram"],["url","https://t.me/c/1248270344/468127"],["summary","\n"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]}]}],["text","\n六六六獸印的時候快到了\n\n🔔人類將變成會行走的WiFi🔔\n《#注射疫苗🟰#大型社會實驗》\n#未針人將會遭受怎樣的對待..？\n參考 #尼日利亞 7300萬 #無針者\n#SIM卡被註銷被踢出社群..\n\n#比爾蓋茨計劃在 #2027年，利用 #水凝膠技術，將人類變成 #會行走的WiFi收發器。\n\n#蓋茨基金會和 #萬事達卡，在 #西非人民身上使用 #水凝膠，通過體內的疫苗，連接他們的 #個人資金，並用於 #預測性警務測試。\n\nDr. #CarrieMadej：\n\n比爾蓋茨說的就是這種技術了。\n在這項技術裡的水凝膠(#HydroGel)和 #粒徑分析(#AnalyticParticle)是一種 #藥物傳遞。\n\n就如他們所說，在他們的研究中，既然這些 #實驗品(#已注射疫苗的人)已經存在了，他們就索性繼續對這些「實驗品」進行實驗到底，並對他們進行 #監視和預測性的 #警務測試。\n\n這意味著，監視人們，從 #生物傳感器上收集所有的數據，然後上傳到一台 #超級電腦上。再加上他們擁有的 #人工智能程式組合。在數據整合後進行預測，這意味著，他們將會通過超級電腦對其進行分析，看看你是否適合做壞人。然後，如果你在他們的定義中，不是一個他們眼中的好人的話….\n\n「假如你還未接種過疫苗，\n 你就會 #被系統鎖定！」\n\n最近在 #尼日利亞，比爾蓋茨其中的一個項目，7300萬名 #無針者的 #SIM卡和 #手機聯繫被切斷了，這意味著成為了 #被社會遺棄的人。\n\n就這樣你可以看到他們的計劃了。人們可能會說，這些發生在 #非洲的事，與我何干？\n\n比爾蓋茨說過，一旦計劃在一個試點實驗完善之後，他們就會把計劃推廣到所有發達國家，進行同樣的做法。\n\n這不僅僅是他，#世界經濟論壇、#聯合國、#達沃斯，所有這些人在談論的，都不僅僅是「#2030議程」而是「2027年」。\n\n他們延長了死線，以人工方式，把這個星球上的每個人都連接起來「通過Wi-Fi連接人們的身體」人類將成為一台 #會行走的WiFi 電腦。\n\n到最後「#人類與網絡，長期處於連線狀態」這已經不單是關於 #人權問題，且還是一個 #人口販賣的問題。\n\n〰️〰️〰️〰️\nHydro Gel (水凝膠)\nhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogel \n\nAnalytic Particle (粒徑分析)\nhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_size_analysis \n\nhttps://rumble.com/v2n752e-bill-gates-plan-to-turn-humans-into-walking-wifi-with-hydrogel-technology-b.html \n\n➰➰➰➰➰➰➰➰➰\n(Uncle字幕｜Juliet｜以馬)\n地球正義聯盟～資料館\nhttps://t.me/EarthJusticeLeague_DataLibrary \n地球正義聯盟\nhttps://t.me/c/1248270344/468127 "],["id","3ity6cx1icjfd"],["createdAt","2023-09-23T12:37:09.215Z"]]}],["reply",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","_VAAEJkBkYc0K64EE3U0"],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","_w-TpJgBngzKCCgMEgXt"],["name","woof!"],["avatarUrl","https://www.gravatar.com/avatar/f9c29d012280a6f23280c2db26f18139?s=100&d=identicon&r=g"],["level",15]]}],["type","RUMOR"],["text","根據Quackwatch(美國揭露位醫學、庸醫之組織)查證，Carrie Lynn Madej本身已經因為傳播多種錯誤訊息而劣跡斑斑。他的影片也已經因為傳播錯誤訊息而下架。"],["reference","Quackwatch\nhttps://quackwatch.org/ncahf/digest24/24-39/\n\nMcGill University Office for Science and Society - Separating Sense from Nonsense \nEnough To Make Scientists Cry!\nhttps://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/covid-19-critical-thinking-pseudoscience/enough-make-scientists-cry\n\nProfessorlin.com 科學的養生保健 ~ 避免謠傳防止誤導-33位散播新冠疫苗謠言的專家\nhttps://professorlin.com/2021/07/08/33%e4%bd%8d%e6%95%a3%e6%92%ad%e6%96%b0%e5%86%a0%e7%96%ab%e8%8b%97%e8%ac%a0%e8%a8%80%e7%9a%84%e5%b0%88%e5%ae%b6/"],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","Just a moment..."],["url","https://quackwatch.org/ncahf/digest24/24-39/"],["summary","Verifying you are human. This may take a few seconds.quackwatch.org needs to review the security of your connection before proceeding."],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title",""],["url","https://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/covid-19-critical-thinking-pseudoscience/enough-make-scientists-cry"],["summary",""],["topImageUrl",null],["error","UNKNOWN_UNFURL_ERROR"]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","33位散播新冠疫苗謠言的專家"],["url","https://professorlin.com/2021/07/08/33%e4%bd%8d%e6%95%a3%e6%92%ad%e6%96%b0%e5%86%a0%e7%96%ab%e8%8b%97%e8%ac%a0%e8%a8%80%e7%9a%84%e5%b0%88%e5%ae%b6/"],["summary","昨天晚上兩位讀者分別在6點15分和9點9分用本網站的「與我聯絡」來詢問同一影片的真假。Corbin Shong…"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]}]}],["createdAt","2025-09-03T14:34:24.451Z"]]}]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["article",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",1],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",1],["user",null],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","三立新聞網 | 2017年新制上路　完整懶人包在這"],["url","https://today.line.me/TW/article/f006cd86d84a02217cd67cef6d0b29771f21625fdc655fa6389a0f0a69164a82?openExternalBrowser=1"],["summary","CP name\n \n 三立新聞網\n \n Upload Date & Time\n 發布時間 2017年1月1日07:30\n Update Date & Time\n 更新時間 2017年1月1日07:39\n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n 生活中心／綜合報導距離2017年剩下不到一周，尤其「一例一休」率先在12月23日實施，不少民眾也開始關心元旦後有哪些新制上路，趕快來看看《三立新聞網》為您整理的各項新制，避免不小心挨罰或影響自身權益。《勞基法》修正草案★基本工資月薪由2萬零8元，調升為2萬1009元。時薪由126元，調升至133元。★「一例一休」加班費計算工作日：前兩小時每小時1又1/3薪資，第三小時起每小時1又2/3薪資。休息日：前兩小時每小時1又1/3薪資，第三小時起每小時1又2/3薪資，未滿4小時以4小時計算。例假日：工資加倍再補休1天，未滿8小時以1天計算。國定假日：工資加倍，未滿8小時以1天計算。責任制人員也適用一例一休。★特休假年資滿6個月、未滿1年，增3天。年資2至3年，增至10天。年資3至5年，增至14天。年資5至10年，增至15天。10年以上，每年加一日，最多至30天。年度終了未休畢可折現。★刪除7天國定假1／2、3／29、9／28、10／25、10／31、11／12、12／25。《交通篇》★乘載孕婦之小型車不受國道高乘載管制12月31日起（2017元旦連假），車內未滿3人但有孕婦乘載（含自行開車或搭乘），將不受國道高乘載管制，此政策包含周日國5北上常態高乘載，用路人需準備孕期內之孕婦健康手冊、附照片身分證明等2項證件，以備檢查。★汽、機車配置晝行燈2017年1月1日起，新式機車出廠販售須配備「晝行燈」，2018年起將套用到新式小客車、小貨車，2019年則是新式大客車、大貨車及所有新出廠的機車，2020、2021年所有新出廠的小型車、大型車都必須配有晝行燈。★機車第6期污染排放、噪音管制標準依據交通工具空氣污染物排放標準第6條：加嚴新車型審驗、新車檢驗驗及使用中車輛驗驗管制標準值。延長排放控制系統之保證期限及里程，維護空氣品質。配備車上診斷系統，提醒使用者車輛發生異常時儘快回廠檢修，以維護空氣品質。強制銷售量達1萬輛以上之廠商，當年度須生產或進口一定數量之惰轉熄火（idle-stop）功能機車或複合動力電動機車或電動機車等綠能車輛，維護空氣品質。依據機動車輛噪音管制標準第3條：新增定速噪音、額外噪音測試（ASEP）及消音器耐久等測試。加嚴新車型審驗及新車抽驗原地噪音管制標準值。★加重酒駕違規者負擔若駕駛人因道路交通管理條例第35條規定吊銷駕照者，除在一定時間內不得重新考照，須再經醫療機構完成酒癮或酒精戒除治療，以減少酒駕情況。目前酒駕違規需參加4小時「酒駕違規班」，累犯者則須參加6小時的「酒駕累犯專班」，未來將分別延長至6小時、12小時，最慢2017年下半年開始實施，相關講習費用也將改為由違規人自行負擔。★高齡駕照75歲以上老人需通過體檢及認知測驗，才會核發有效期限為2年的短期駕照。★汽車用輪胎汽車用輪胎製造日期超過6年，不得在市面上販售或進口。《生活篇》★食安食品正名：鱈魚、巧克力、薏仁、太白粉，應如實標示內容物，違者最重罰400萬元。量販業廚餘：公司資本總額達2千500萬元以上的超級市場及零售式量販業，2017年3月1日開始，要上網申報廢棄物清理流向。★飲水用水龍頭鉛溶出量需不大於5μg/L（5微克/公升，即5ppb），水龍頭材料含鉛量也不得超過0.25%，且應標示「LF」（Lead Free，無鉛)，並於外包裝標示「飲水用」。★環保強制回收4種供照明使用的LED照明光源。針對鈕扣型電池的汞及鎘含量進行管制。實施新制冷氣節能標準CSPF（冷氣季節性能因數）。★電子帳單水費優惠每期水費減收3元★中華郵政停辦15國（地區）國際水陸函件、停辦韓國、港澳的國際水陸包裹出口業務，調漲14國（地區）國際水陸包裹資費。★健保未經轉診至醫學中心看病，門診部分負擔調高到60至100元，經轉診者則減少40元。兒科醫師協助施打1歲以下兒童公費疫苗，每次可得補助100元。★國民旅遊卡公務員國旅卡補助其中一半強制用於團體旅遊，3月起擬開放不限團體旅遊。★空氣品質管制台灣西部列為PM2.5三級空氣品質防制。★房屋出租出租房屋應用符合「應記載及不得記載事項規定」的契約，若違反規定最高將可處30萬元罰鍰。★台北市公車932個公車站、1150座候車亭全面禁菸，違者最高開罰1萬元。《稅務篇》★綜所稅免稅額一般免稅額調高至8萬8000元，70歲長者調高至13萬2000元。調高課稅級距、退職所得定額免稅級距。★貨物稅電動車免徵貨物稅至2021年12月31日，另外補貼電動重型機車近1萬4千元。★證交稅公司債、金融債、債券ETF等商品，停徵證交稅至2026年底。★跨境電商營業稅來台營業須辦理簡易登記。勞務每月4萬、年銷售額48萬元以上，達繳稅門檻。★網購關稅進口次數頻繁者，不適用3000元以下免稅規定。《保險、退休金》★勞工保險費率由10%提高至10.5%（含就業保險）。★國民年金保險費率由從8%漲至8.5%。★勞退新制年滿60歲、年資滿15年，退休金可自選一次領或月領。★壽險個人傷害險危險發生率降到萬分之2.4543。壽險新契約責任準備金利率2017年起調降。★健保投保金額全民健康保險投保金額下限修正為2萬1009元。《金融篇》★上市、上櫃公司實收資本額50億元以上，需編企業社會責任報告書（CSR）。實收資本額20億元以上，需設審計委員會。★台股ETF可採現金申購贖回機制。★反洗錢銀行需設立防制洗錢專責單位，並配置足夠人員。★匯款3萬元以上的跨境匯款，銀行需加強查驗客戶身分、股東結構。身心障礙者若需跨行提款，每月三次免手續費。★房屋貸款財政部推出、由八大公股行庫承作的青年安心成家貸款，申請期限至今年底。但考量年輕人購屋需求，經立委提案後，財政部決定延長2年，報行政院核定通過，每戶額度仍為800萬元。★青年教育與就業儲蓄帳戶明年8月起試辦3年，以高中職應屆畢業生為對象，預估每年5000人，每月提撥1萬元，3年後可全數提領36萬元。★兒童與少年未來教育及發展專戶明年起針對低收入戶、中低收入戶及長期安置兒童成立教育發展帳戶，家長每人每年最高存入1萬5000元，政府相對提撥1萬5000元，合計最高3萬元，1年補助1萬名。\n \n \n 查看原始文章"],["topImageUrl","https://obs.line-scdn.net/0m0e340e6a1b701230606e7511742161206a6f646f2410291a137b3d3979793d626a333c3d73303c5e392832313d/w580"],["error",null]]}]}],["text","https://today.line.me/TW/article/f006cd86d84a02217cd67cef6d0b29771f21625fdc655fa6389a0f0a69164a82?openExternalBrowser=1"],["id","5478515575356-rumor"],["createdAt","2017-01-09T15:39:00.000Z"]]}],["reply",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","AV1e1J_WyCdS-nWhucs3"],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","AVriAlOoyrDaTqlmmqhC"],["name","Lin"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",22]]}],["type","NOT_ARTICLE"],["text"," 疑似為訊息之節錄片段，並非全文。"],["reference",""],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[]}],["createdAt","2017-07-20T07:09:39.174Z"]]}]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["article",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",2],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",1],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_56sY5We8TIfM_62-ZyFHMJyWUQ0kpjIaGPxhi4bM83U"],["name","盡職認真的阿里山陸斯恩"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","Inhibition of SARS-CoV 3C-like Protease Activity by Theaflavin-3,3′-digallate (TF3)"],["url","https://bit.ly/2t6y7ij"],["summary","Chia-Nan Chen,1,* Coney P. C. Lin,1,* Kuo-Kuei Huang,1 Wei-Cheng Chen,1 Hsin-Pang Hsieh,1 Po-Huang Liang,2 and John T.-A. Hsu1,3,†This article has been cited by other articles in PMC.AbstractSARS-CoV is the causative agent of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). The virally encoded 3C-like protease (3CLPro) has been presumed critical for the viral replication of SARS-CoV in infected host cells. In this study, we screened a natural product library consisting of 720 compounds for inhibitory activity against 3CLPro. Two compounds in the library were found to be inhibitive: tannic acid (IC50 = 3 µM) and 3-isotheaflavin-3-gallate (TF2B) (IC50 = 7 µM). These two compounds belong to a group of natural polyphenols found in tea. We further investigated the 3CLPro-inhibitory activity of extracts from several different types of teas, including green tea, oolong tea, Puer tea and black tea. Our results indicated that extracts from Puer and black tea were more potent than that from green or oolong teas in their inhibitory activities against 3CLPro. Several other known compositions in teas were also evaluated for their activities in inhibiting 3CLPro. We found that caffeine, (—)-epigallocatechin gallte (EGCg), epicatechin (EC), theophylline (TP), catechin (C), epicatechin gallate (ECg) and epigallocatechin (EGC) did not inhibit 3CLPro activity. Only theaflavin-3,3′-digallate (TF3) was found to be a 3CLPro inhibitor. This study has resulted in the identification of new compounds that are effective 3CLPro inhibitors.Keywords: natural products, 3CLPro, black tea, TF2B, TF3IntroductionSevere acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is caused by a newly discovered coronavirus, SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) (1,2). From November 1, 2002 to June 18, 2003, a total of 8465 probable SARS cases were reported to the World Health Organization from 29 countries, and 801 people died from this disease. The case–fatality proportion was ∼10%. Although the spread of the virus has been averted, the re-emergence of SARS is still in question (3–6).Like other related coronaviruses, SARS-CoV is an enveloped virus containing single-stranded RNA of positive polarity. Coronaviruses have the largest genomes known (∼30 kb) among RNA viruses [7]. The genome of SARS-CoV comprises one open reading frame (ORF) encoding two overlapping replicase polyproteins, polyprotein-1a (pp1a, ∼450 kDa) and poplyprotein-1ab (pp1ab, ∼750 kDa), responsible for virus replication (7). The rest of the genome comprises at least five ORFs encoding structural proteins and other genes with putative functions (8,9). Proteolytic processing, especially the processing of replicase polyproteins, is one of the crucial steps in the life cycle of many positive-stranded RNA viruses, including coronaviruses. All coronaviruses encode a papline-like protease (PLP) and a chymotrypsin-like (3CLPro) protease for proteolytic procession during virus maturation (10). Studies on other coronaviruses have shown that the PLP protein cleaves at no less than two sites on the pp1a polyprotein and that the 3CLPro protease cleaves at least 11 inter-domain sites on the pp1a and pp1ab polyproteins [7]. Thus, the 3CLPro protease of SARS-CoV has been considered as an important molecular target for anti-SARS-CoV drug discovery and developments. In this study, after screening of a natural product library and further confirmation, we found that SARS-3CLPro could be inhibited by compounds that are abundant in teas. We also examined crude extracts from various teas and a panel of representative natural products in teas for their inhibitory activities against SARS-3CLPro.MethodsPreparation of SARS-CoV 3CLProTotal RNA extracted from a throat swab of a SARS patient was provided by the Center for Disease Control (CDC), Taipei, Taiwan. All RNA samples were handled under bio-safety level 2 (BSL2) regulations. Two primers, 5′-GGCGGAATTCGCCTCTACCAACCACCACAGA-3′ and 5′-GGCGGAATTCA AAGCATCCAATGATGAGTGCC-3′, were used for reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction (RT–PCR) to synthesize the cDNA of SARS-3CLPro using Ready-to-Go RT–PCR Beads (Amersham Biosciences, Piscataway, NJ) according to the manufacturer's protocol. The PCR cycle used for the amplification of cDNA of SARS-3CLPro was as follows: 94°C for 5 min, 25 cycles of 94°C for 1 min, 58°C for 3 min, 72°C for 2 min and 72°C for 10 min. A full-length 3CLPro of SARS coronavirus was successfully expressed in Escherichia coli as a glutathione S-transferase (GST) fusion protein. Following cleavage by thrombin, 3CLPro was purified to homogeneity. A 15mer peptide with sequence H2N-SITSAVLQSGFRKMA-COOH corresponding to an autocleavage site of the SARS-3CLPro was synthesized and used for protease cleavage activity assay. The highly purified protein was shown by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis to exhibit proteolytic activity in trans.Compound CollectionThe Pure Natural Products Library used to screen for 3CLPro inhibition was obtained from MicroSource Discovery Systems, Inc., Gaylordsville, CT. It consists of a unique collection of 720 pure natural products. The collection includes simple and complex oxygen heterocycles, alkaloids, sequiterpenes, diterpenes, pentacyclic triterpenes, sterols and many other diverse representatives. Initially, 10 different compounds were pooled, and the mixtures were tested for their inhibitory activities against SARS-3CLPro. Positive pools were then deconvoluted and single pure compounds that were able to inhibit >50% of peptide cleavage at 10 µM were scored as hits. Other compounds were obtained from Sigma (St Louis, MO). Theaflavin (TF1), TF2 [a mixture of TF-2A (theaflavin-3-gallate) and TF-2B (theaflavin-3′-gallate)] and theaflavin-3,3′-digallate (TF3) were kind gifts from Dr Yu-Chih Liang, School of Medical Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.Preparation of Crude Extracts from Oolong Tea, Green Tea, Black Tea and Puer TeaTea liquors were prepared from oolong tea, green tea, black tea and Puer tea (also called pu-er or pu-erh) samples as 2% (w/v) tea solutions. The water extracts of four different types of tea leaves were prepared by shaking for 10 min in boiling hot water in thermal flasks. The extracts were then filtered through a Millex-GS 0.22 µm filter (Millipore, Malsheim, France) to remove particulate matter. The water extracts were then evaporated under reduced pressure to obtain viscous masses. These materials were evaluated for their inhibitory activities against SARS-3CLPro.Inhibition of Protease Activity of SARS-3CLPro by HPLC AssayA general cysteine protease inhibitor, N-ethylmaleimide (NEM, protease inhibitor as positive control), was obtained from Sigma (St Louis, MO). This compound was tested for its inhibitory activities against SARS-3CLPro in the peptide cleavage assay. The activities of the proteases were measured in the absence or presence of different concentrations of these general inhibitors. The enzyme (2 µM) was pre-incubated with chemicals for 30 min. Peptide was then added at 100 µM to the reaction, and mixtures were incubated at 37°C for 1 h. The potency of the inhibitors was calculated. The HPLC analysis condition is: a C18 RP guard column (250 × 4.6 mm × 5 µm, Agilent Zorbax Extend). This method was chosen because it gave the best resolution among several methods that were tested. The column temperature was ambient, and the elution (0.8 ml/min) was performed using a solvent system comprising solvents A [10 MM NH4OAc, 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA)] and B (acetonitrile, 0.1% TFA) mixed using a gradient starting with 100% A, linearly decreasing to 10% A in 8 min, to 100% A in 16 min, and held at 100% A for 23 min. The injection volume was 40 ml. The UV detector was set at 214 nm.Proteolytic Activity of SARS-3CLPro by Fluorogenic Substrate Peptide AssayThe development of a fluorescent protease activity assay has been reported previously (7). The enhanced fluorescence due to cleavage of the fluorogenic substrate peptide (Dabcyl-KTSAVLQSGFRKME-Edans) catalyzed by the protease was monitored at 538 nm with excitation at 355 nm using a fluorescence plate reader (Fluoroskan Ascent from ThermoLabsystems, Sweden). The fluorimetric assay was used to determine the IC50 of identified inhibitors on SARS 3CLPro activity. The protease was stored in the buffer containing 12 mM Tris–HCl (pH 7.5), 120 mM NaCl, 0.1 mM EDTA, 7.5 mM 2-mercaptoethanol and 1 mM dithiothreitol (DTT) at −70°C before use.ResultsScreening of a 720 Compound Library Against 3CLPro Activity by HPLC AssayThe spectrum collection, a library of 720 drugs and natural products, was screened for 3CLPro inhibitory activity. A flowchart of the screening procedure is shown in Fig. 1. Initially, 10 different compounds were pooled, and the 72 mixtures were then tested for their inhibitory activities against SARS-3CLPro. The HPLC assay was used in the primary screening because many compounds in the library are chromogenic. Single compounds in the positive pools were then evaluated for their activities. Two compounds, tannic acid and TF2B, were found to be active against 3CLPro (Fig. 2). Tannic acid is a water-soluble polyphenol present in plant food such as tea, red wine, beer and nuts. In addition, tea polyphenols and many tannin components are thought to be anticarcinogenic (14,15).Flowchart of the screening of the compound library and tea compositions.Inhibition of 3CL Pro activity by HPLC assay. Injection of 40 µl of incubation samples for C18 reverse phase column analysis. The substrate or product fragment peaks were analyzed by HPLC with UV absorbance detection at 214 nm. The HPLC system is described in Methods.Evaluation of Tea Extracts and Pure Components from Teas for Their Inhibition of 3CLPro ActivitySince many other polyphenols related to tannic acid and TF2B are also present in various kinds of teas, we decided to examine the inhibition of activity by various tea extracts and several well known pure ingredients present in teas. Thus, water extracts from different types of teas were prepared and evaluated for their inhibitory activities against 3CLPro. As shown in Table 1, extracts from black and Puer teas inhibited 3CLPro activity while those from green or oolong teas did not. We further tested the possible involvement of several known ingredients present in teas, including caffeine, theophylline, catechin (C), epigallocatechin (EGC), (—)-epigallocatechin gallte (EGCg), epicatechin (EC), epicatechin gallate (ECg), TF1, TF2, TF2B, tannic acid and TF3. As shown in Table 1, the results showed that methylxanthine (caffeine and theophylline) did not influence 3CLPro activity; catechins, including C, EC, ECg, EGC and EGCg, present in green tea (unfermented) and oolong tea (partial fermented) also did not inhibit 3CLPro activity. Our results indicated that tannic acid, TF2B and TF3 are 3CLPro inhibitors as revealed by the fluorogenic substrate assay (Fig. 3). TF2A was not tested because of its unavailability.Inhibition of 3CLPro activity by fluorogenic substrate peptide assay. Inhibition of 3CLPro activity by tannic acid, TF1, TF2B, TF3 and EGCg. The enhanced fluorescence due to cleavage of the fluorogenic substrate peptide catalyzed by the protease was monitored at 538 nm with exicitation at 355 nm using a fluorescence plate reader. The determining assay is described in Methods.Table 1Inhibition of SARS 3CLPro activity by natural productsCompound libraryIC50 (µM)3-Isotheaflavin-3-gallate (TF2B)7Tannic acid3Tea extractIC50 (µg/ml)Oolong tea125Green tea125Black tea70Puer tea25Other compositions in green teaIC50 (µM)Caffeine100Theophylline100Catechin (C)100Epigallocatechin (EGC)100(–)-Epigallocatechin gallte (EGCg)100Epicatechin (EC)100Epicatechin gallate (ECg)100Theaflavin composition in black teaIC50 (µM)Theaflavin (TF1)56Theaflavin-3-gallate,TF-2a and43Theaflavin-3′ -gallate,TF-2b mixture (TF2)Theaflavin-3,3′ -digallate (TF3)9.5TF2B and TF3 as Potent Agents Against 3CLPro Inhibitory ActivityThe natural product screened library consisted of simple and complex oxygen heterocycles, alkaloids, sequiterpenes, diterpenes, pentacyclic triterpenes, sterols and many other diverse representatives. Numerous black tea polyphenols (especially those of TF1, TF2 and TF3) were found to inhibit 3CLPro. In black tea, TF3 was the most abundant (1.05%) followed by TF2A (0.34%), TF2B (0.11%) and TF1 (0.08%) (16). It is interesting to note that TF3 contained two gallate groups attached to the 3,3′ positions as shown in Fig. 4b. TF2A and TF2B, on the other hand, consisted of only one gallate group attached either to the 3 or the 3′ positions, respectively (Fig. 4b). In contrast, no gallate group was attached to TF1. Results in Table 1, indicating that the gallate group attached to the 3′ position to TF2B and TF3, might be important for interaction with the 3CLPro active site. EC, EGCg, ECG and EGC were much less active (IC50 ≥ 100 µM) than theaflavins.Chemical structures of tannic acid, catechins and TFs.DiscussionHuman coronaviruses (HCoVs) are major causes of upper respiratory tract illness in animals including humans. It has been demonstrated that a novel coronavirus causes SARS. The main protease, frequently called 3C-like protease (3CLPro), has been identified as an attractive drug target (17). Of the 720 natural products screened in this study, tannic acid (Fig. 4a) and TF2B were identified using the HPLC proteolytic assay to inhibit 50% of the proteolytic acitivity of 3CLPro at concentrations ≤10 µM. Both tannic acid and TF2B belong to the group of natural polyphenols found in teas. Low concentrations of tannic acid were found to inhibit proteases including tissue-type plasminogen activator, urokinase-type plasminogen activator and plasmin activity [13]. Over 300 different kinds of tea are now produced, but they are classified into three main forms: green tea is manufactured by drying fresh tea leaves, with emphasis on the prevention of oxidation of the tea polyphenols during the manufacturing process. In contrast, the manufacture of black tea is characterized by a high degree of fermentation, which produces a series of chemical condensations among the ingredients present in tea. Oolong tea is partially fermented, and the tea compositions are more similar to those found in green tea (18). In evaluating different types of tea, we found that extracts from several different types of tea, including Puer and black tea, could inhibit 3CLPro activity while green or oolong tea could not. However, the chemical composition in Puer tea is very complex and it is difficult to isolate pure ingredients for structural identification. Purification and identification of Puer tea ingredients should be carried out in a separate study.We next examined whether other well-known ingredients present in tea could also inhibit 3CLPro activity. We found that methylxanthine (caffeine and theophylline) and catechins (EGCg, EC, C, ECg and EGC) were not able to inhibit 3CLPro activity at concentrations up to 100 µM (Table 1). However, TF1, TF2 and TF3 were more potent 3CLPro inhibitors than catechins in green tea. During the fermentation step in the production of black tea, most of the catechins are oxidized and condensed into theaflavins through dimerization and into thearubigins through polymerization. Green tea contains ∼30% of catechins (dry mass base) while black tea contains ∼9% of catechins and 4% of theaflavins (19). In another study, Leung et al. (16) reported that TF3 was the most abundant (1.05%) theaflavin in black tea followed by TF2A (0.34%), TF2B (0.11%) and TF1 (0.08%). Tannic acid is a class of polyphenolic in plants but the quantification of its levels in green or black tea is difficult because tannic acid constitutes a wide range of polymers with mol. wts of 500–3000 Da.It is interesting to note that TF2B and TF3 are more potent inhibitors of 3CLPro than TF1 (Table 1). Unlike TF2B and TF3, TF1 does not contain a gallate group (Fig. 4b). Thus, the addition of a gallate group attached at the 39 position to TF2B and TF3 might be important for their inhibitory activity against 3CLPro. These results suggest that TF2B and TF3 might be good starting points for the design of more active inhibitors for the 3CLPro encoded by SARS-CoV.Finally, this study has identified three compounds (TF2B, TF3 and tannic acid) that are effective 3CLPro inhibitors (IC50 ≤10 µM). These compounds are abundant in the extract of black tea (16,19). Black tea is a popular beverage in the world. Results from this study warrant further investigation to examine the effect of these natural products in inhibition of SARS-CoV replication in cell culture. Clark et al. reported that theaflavins extracted from black tea were able to neutralize bovine coronavirus and rotavirus infections (20). Thus, it will be very interesting to evaluate, in a separate study, whether drinking black tea can prevent or alleviate the infection of an enteric form of coronavirus since SARS-CoV is known to actively replicate in the intestinal tract (21).AcknowledgmentsWe thank Dr Tzong-Der Way for providing excellent technical support. This work was supported in part by funds and facilities of NHRI of Taiwan and by Grants NSC92-2751-B-400-006-Y to X.C and J.T.A.H. and NSC92-2751-B-001-012-Y to P.H.L. from the National Science Council, Taiwan.References1. Ksiazek TG, Erdman D, Goldsmith CS, Zaki SR, Peret T, Emery S, et al. A novel coronavirus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome. 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[PubMed] [Google Scholar]"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","インフルエンザ予防に効果的！鳥取大学と産官学で研究開発。科学的に確認された紅茶の力｜澤井珈琲 - ものくろぼっくす"],["url","https://bit.ly/3aOJ3Ci"],["summary","抗インフルエンザ寒さが厳しい毎日です。この寒い冬、やっかいなのがインフルエンザです。予防接種での対策も大切ですが、毎日の手洗い・うがい・マスクの徹底が一番です。受験シーズンです。また、仕事も年明け・年度末に向けての大切な時期。受験生をはじめ学生さん、多忙なビジネスマンの皆さん、インフルエンザの予防に頭を悩ませているのではないでしょうか？。すごい紅茶が登場しました。大学と県研究機関が「抗インフルエンザ作用」を学術的に確認した紅茶です。まずは飲んでみた「抗インフルエンザ作用」を持つ紅茶はこちらです。早速、1本飲んでみました。口にしたとき、「あれ」と思いました。「普通の紅茶だ」そう、勝手に”くすりのように独特の味”があると思い込んでいました。かすかな甘みと濃厚なリーフの味です。というより「おいしい！」いや、これかなりいい感じですよ。1つ280mlと少し少ないなと思っていましたが、少し”とろみ”のある、とても濃いリーフの味、十二分に楽しめました。一気に飲み干すのはちょっとしんどい。それぐらい濃いです。でも後味はスッキリです。味は”午後の紅茶ストレート”を濃厚にした感じです。すいません、紅茶だから当然ですよね。例えが分かりにくく、ごめんなさい（特別な味はしないんです、そこが伝われば幸いです）。で、効果は？1つ飲んだからといって、インフルエンザ予防の効果は分からですし、飲み続けて、Alがインフルエンザにならなかったから”効果あり”ということにもならないです。ですが、美味しい。これは確かです。毎日の昼下がりに紅茶を楽しみながら、インフルエンザ予防効果が得られるならどうでしょう。こんな美味しい話は見逃せません。ちょっと値段が、毎日飲むのにどうかな？という気もします。しかし、インフルエンザになったときの辛さと比べると、予防できるならとも感じるのです。晩酌の量をちょっと減らせば、コストを穴埋めできます（アルコールも減って健康にいいですよ）。その効果はどのようにして確認されているのか？を調べました。産官学の成果このとろみ紅茶は澤井珈琲Beans＆Leafさんが商品開発され、販売されています。コーヒー豆と紅茶リーフの販売で有名な鳥取境港の会社さんです。楽天市場のコーヒー部門 1位！のショップさんです。鳥取大学医学部と（地独）鳥取県産業技術センターでの共同研究における成果にて、この開発した紅茶が抗インフルエンザ作用、ならびにポリフェノールの機能性を持つことが明らかになりました。研究では、インフルエンザ予防効果が「培養細胞レベル」で実証されました。この「とろみ紅茶」のインフルエンザウィルスの感染を抑える効果が確認されました。インフルエンザ予防に効果的なのです。研究結果この研究結果は大きく取り上げられました。(0684)鳥取県次世代・地域資源産業育成事業により開発された「とろみ紅茶：テアフラティー」に係る知事報告／報道提供資料／とりネット／鳥取県公式ホームページ景山　誠二 …昨今の健康ブームを反映して、各種健康飲料の市場は堅調な推移を見せている。・開発に当たって、鳥取大学医学部では、培養細胞によるテアフラビンの抗インフルエンザ作用の試験を実施。また、産業技術センター食品開発研究所では、高濃度のテアフラ　ビン黒紅茶の製造条件確立等の技術支援を行った。・これら関係機関の支援を受け、商品完成に至ったもの。澤井珈琲から健康茶「とろみ紅茶」新発売！/関西本部/とりネット/鳥取県公式サイト境港市の澤井珈琲が鳥取大学などと、抗インフルエンザ作用が見込める紅茶を開発しました。健康のために１度お試しくださいませ。株式会社澤井珈琲様から感謝状と寄付金を頂きました。：鳥取県産業技術センター株式会社澤井珈琲様はオリジナル商品であるコーヒーや紅茶飲料おいて、産業技術センター　食品開発研究所が技術支援し、「認知症」、「インフルエンザ」の予防が期待される機能性成分を製品中に保持させた商品の開発に成功しました。澤井珈琲～SAWAI COFFEEとろみ紅茶テアフラティー完成。(PDF)山陰中央テレビ/日本経済新聞/日本海新聞/山陰中央新報で紹介されました。(PDF)このように鳥取県が全面的に技術支援・バックアップを行っていました。鳥取大学医学部からのプレスリリースは見つけることができませんでしたが、これは研究成果の詳細は企業機密のため公表できないためと思われます。まとめ鳥取大学医学部と鳥取県産業技術センター、そして、澤井珈琲の共同研究で開発された紅茶を紹介しました、鳥取大学の研究にて、インフルエンザの予防効果が確認された紅茶です。かすかな甘みと濃厚なリーフの味で、「おいしい！」紅茶です。インフルエンザの効果の前に、美味しい紅茶ですからうれしい製品です。毎日の昼下がりに紅茶を楽しみながら、インフルエンザ予防効果が得られる素晴らしいものです。紅茶で気分をリフレッシュ、そして、インフルエンザの感染防止と、心と体の両方にすばらしい効果があります。この寒さ厳しい冬も万全の体調でがんばる忙しいあなた、受験シーズン真っ只中のあなたにおすすめします！。インフルエンザに負けない！そんなあなたにおすすめ！あわせて読みたい！紅茶がインフルエンザ予防に効果あり？その研究結果を読んでみた。 | BOX of Pictures共同研究の内容についてのレビュー記事です。"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","LINE Add Friend"],["url","https://goo.gl/RCjM0v"],["summary","Add LINE Friends via QR Code\nOpen the Friends tab in your LINE app, tap the add friends icon inthe top right, select \"QR code,\" and then scan this QR code.\n\nLearn more about LINE \nDownload now"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]}]}],["text","台灣紅茶大力推！👍🏻\n紅茶茶黃質抗冠狀病毒！\n紅茶所含的茶黃素(TF3)，不僅形成紅茶深邃的顏色，也能夠阻止冠狀病毒的複製。\n這篇論文是台灣中央研究院與國家衛生研究院發表的文章。屬於論文級別的報導，可信度高。\n論文出處：https://bit.ly/2t6y7ij\n\n日本產、官、學合作開發的とろみ紅茶，加入纖維提升2～3倍的茶黃素(TF3)，原來訴求抗流感病毒，現在用來抗冠狀病毒。😷\n原文連結：とろみ紅茶\nhttps://bit.ly/3aOJ3Ci\n\n歡迎加入\n「台茶檢驗」LINE@\nhttps://goo.gl/RCjM0v\n請按個讚喔！"],["id","84m776m17hh8"],["createdAt","2020-01-31T03:18:46.993Z"]]}],["reply",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","KGj7LHABd3n3h-WYIncx"],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","qTquemUBbZnN2I-Em5wS"],["name","Zzzz"],["avatarUrl","https://www.gravatar.com/avatar/f4fda727ca69d01ed09b0e7e41453fee?s=100&d=identicon&r=g"],["level",15]]}],["type","RUMOR"],["text","台灣事實查核中心查證：\n1. 這項研究只在很初步的階段，沒有經過動物試驗、人體臨床實驗，無法直接推論「茶黃素可抗冠狀病毒」。\n2. 目前沒有針對新型冠狀病毒的藥物，只能採用支持性療法。"],["reference","https://tfc-taiwan.org.tw/articles/2328\nhttps://tfc-taiwan.org.tw/articles/2117"],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","【錯誤】傳言引述文獻指稱「紅茶與普洱茶，抗冠狀病毒...紅茶跟普洱茶所含的茶黃素（TF3）...能夠阻止冠狀病毒的複製...」？"],["url","https://tfc-taiwan.org.tw/articles/2328"],["summary","通訊軟體傳言引述文獻指稱「紅茶與普洱茶，抗冠狀病毒...紅茶跟普洱茶所含的茶黃素（TF3）...能夠阻止冠狀病毒的複製...」，經查：\n\n一、傳言引述的文獻為2005年的研究，目的在了解天然植物化合物中是否可能有抑制SARS冠狀病毒蛋白酶活性的物質，研究發現茶黃素TF3跟TF2B存在的情形下，冠狀病毒蛋白酶3CLPro的效率逐漸下降。因此研究團隊推論紅茶或普洱茶可能有機會抑制SARS冠狀病毒。\n\n二、專家指出，這項研究是初步發現茶黃素TF3能抑制SARS病毒蛋白酶的活性，但尚未證實TF3具有抗SARS病毒在活細胞複製的能力，亦未有動物試驗或人體臨床試驗，無法以此直接推論「茶黃素可抗冠狀病毒」。\n\n三、專家指出，冠狀病毒目前仍無核准使用之藥物或疫苗。\n\n因此，傳言為「錯誤」訊息。\n\n背景\n\n通訊軟體流傳訊息指出：「Dr.T 日本生化博士，以下是他的po文。紅茶與普洱茶，抗冠狀病毒！嗜喝咖啡/烏龍茶/綠茶的朋友，最近可以改喝紅茶或是普洱。植物總是在人不經意的時候，提供適時的幫助。紅茶跟普洱所含的茶黃素（TF3），不僅形成紅茶深邃的顏色，也能夠阻止冠狀病毒的複製。而烏龍與綠茶則沒有這個效果。...論文出處 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1142193/#__ffn_sectitle」\n\n此傳言亦有相似版本，宣稱：「這篇論文是出自於美國FDA旗下的醫學期刊...植物總是在人不經意的時候，提供適時的幫助。紅茶跟普洱茶所含的茶黃素（TF3），不僅形成紅茶深紅的顏色，也能夠阻止冠狀病毒的複製。而烏龍與綠茶則沒有這個效果喔！」\n\n\n圖1：通訊軟體流傳訊息擷圖\n\n\n圖2：通訊軟體流傳訊息擷圖\n\n查核\n\n爭議點一、傳言引述的研究文獻為何？\n\n查核中心查證，傳言引述的研究為〈Inhibition of SARS-CoV 3C-like Protease Activity by Theaflavin-3,3′-digallate (TF3)〉，2005年刊登於《循證補充替代醫學》期刊。\n\n\n圖3：網傳引述的研究擷圖\n\n美國喬治梅森大學國家生物防禦曁感染症中心研究專員林士超協助解讀這份研究報告。他指出，這項研究是生物化學研究，而非實際病毒學研究。這項研究是由國家衛生研究院徐祖安博士主導，目的在了解天然植物化合物中是否可能有抑制SARS冠狀病毒蛋白酶活性的物質，而冠狀病毒的蛋白酶是冠狀病毒複製過程中所需要的自身病毒蛋白。\n\n林士超說，這項研究是用高壓液相層析儀（HPLC）方式，自720種已知藥物與天然化合物中篩選出茶黃素似乎可抑制蛋白酶活性，進一步利用螢光標記的蛋白來測試蛋白酶裂解作用的效率，以評估冠狀病毒蛋白酶在茶黃素存在的情況下，裂解目標蛋白的能力是否會下降。\n\n林士超說，徐博士的團隊發現茶黃素TF3跟TF2B存在的情形下，冠狀病毒蛋白酶3CLPro的效率逐漸下降，最後計算出抑制蛋白酶的IC50（達到50％的抑制效果之抑制劑濃度）約在10-50微莫耳濃度之間，該團隊因此延伸推論到紅茶或普洱茶可能有機會抑制SARS冠狀病毒。\n\n爭議點二、這項研究是否指出「茶黃素可以抗冠狀病毒」？\n\n（一）林士超指出：\n\n以這項研究直接推論「茶黃素可以抗冠狀病毒」非常冒險。首先，這項研究是直接以茶黃素加入純化出的病毒蛋白酶來測試活性，這樣的研究甚至不能稱為體外細胞實驗（in vitro），更何況許多在體外細胞實驗觀察到抗病毒功效，在動物試驗（in vivo）是沒有效果的。\n\n其次，TF3在茶葉中僅有1％含量，如果要達到實際有效的濃度，可能得喝下數公升或甚至數十公升的紅茶或普洱茶才有可能，實務上幾乎不可能達成。\n\n第三，此研究中最能抑制冠狀病毒蛋白酶的物質其實是俗稱的單寧酸，效果比茶黃素TF3更好，但紅茶或普洱茶中幾乎沒有單寧酸，反而在綠茶中有較多單寧酸。傳言卻指稱「綠茶沒有效果」，並不合理。\n\n最後，3CLPro蛋白酶是冠狀病毒進入細胞內以後才會大量產生的病毒蛋白，用來輔助病毒複製增生，但人體細胞內沒有這種蛋白酶，因此無法推論為「喝紅茶可預防冠狀病毒感染」。\n\n（二）長庚大學新興病毒感染研究中心主任施信如說明：\n\n這項研究只在很早期的研發階段，僅是以SARS病毒的蛋白酶做實驗，沒有對SARS病毒本身做試驗，也沒有經過動物試驗、人體臨床實驗，學理上無法以這項研究直接推論「茶黃素可抗冠狀病毒」。\n\n（三）台灣大學獸醫系副教授陳慧文指出：\n\n本篇研究以生物化學的特性去分析，初步發現茶黃素TF3能抑制SARS病毒蛋白酶的活性，但尚未證實TF3具有抗SARS病毒在活細胞複製的能力，亦未有動物試驗或人體臨床試驗，更何況本次新型冠狀病毒與SARS病毒不同，因此無法直接解讀為TF3能抗新型冠狀病毒。\n\n陳慧文補充，冠狀病毒目前仍無核准使用之藥物或疫苗。\n\n結論\n\n一、傳言引述的研究為2005年的研究，目的在了解天然植物化合物中是否可能有抑制SARS冠狀病毒蛋白酶活性的物質，研究發現茶黃素TF3跟TF2B存在的情形下，冠狀病毒蛋白酶3CLPro的效率逐漸下降。因此，研究團隊推論紅茶或普洱茶可能有機會抑制SARS冠狀病毒。\n\n二、專家指出，這項研究是初步發現茶黃素TF3能抑制SARS病毒蛋白酶的活性，但尚未證實TF3具有抗SARS病毒在活細胞複製的能力，亦未有動物試驗或人體臨床試驗，無法以此直接推論「茶黃素可抗冠狀病毒」。\n\n三、專家指出，冠狀病毒目前仍無核准使用之藥物或疫苗。\n\n因此，傳言為「錯誤」訊息。\n\n參考資料\n\nChen, C.-N., Lin, C. P. C., Huang, K.-K., Chen, W.-C., Hsieh, H.-P., Liang, P.-H., & Hsu, J. T.-A. (2005). Inhibition of SARS-CoV 3C-like Protease Activity by Theaflavin-3,3-digallate (TF3). Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2(2), 209–215. doi: 10.1093/ecam/neh08"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","【部分錯誤】網傳「武漢肺炎已經定名為SARI了，確定是SARS的強進化病毒...目前市面上所有藥物均無效...乙酸對病毒有效」？"],["url","https://tfc-taiwan.org.tw/articles/2117"],["summary","網傳「武漢肺炎已經定名為SARI了，確定是SARS的強進化病毒...目前市面上所有藥物均無效...乙酸對病毒有效」，經查：\n\n一、世界衛生組織將「武漢肺炎」正名為「2019新型冠狀病毒（2019n-Cov）」，而SARI是統稱需要住院的肺炎。\n\n二、新型冠狀病毒的確沒有疫苗和藥物，而是採用支持性療法。\n\n三、國際並未採用類固醇來治療新冠病毒。\n\n四、噴灑白醋不能消毒殺菌。\n\n因此，此傳言為「部分錯誤」訊息。\n\n背景\n\n社群平台、通訊軟體流傳訊息指出：「武漢肺癌已經定名為SARI了，確定是SARS的強進化病毒...病毒進入人體後干擾免疫系統，讓免疫系統誤認為肺細胞是外來物從而發起進攻，病人是被自己的免疫系統殺死的，重點：目前市面上所有藥物均無效...乙酸對病毒有效...加水稀釋噴在空間中消毒...」\n\n\n圖1：社群平台流傳訊息擷圖\n\n查核\n\n爭議點一、傳言指稱「武漢肺癌已經定名為SARI了，確定是SARS的強進化病毒」，是否屬實？\n\n世界衛生組織（WHO）表示，中國於2020年1月7日確認武漢肺炎為一種新型的冠狀病毒，因此，WHO暫時命名為「「2019新型冠狀病毒」（Novel coronavirus 2019，簡稱為 2019 n-CoV)。 \n\n衛生福利部疾病管制署於2020年1月25日發新聞稿澄清：「嚴重特殊傳染性肺炎係屬新興傳染病，「SARI」（severe acute respiratory infection）為全世界已使用許久之名詞，定義上是指需住院的肺炎，可能由多種病原引起，非特定指新型冠狀病毒。」\n\n爭議點二、傳言指稱「病毒進入人體後干擾免疫系統，讓免疫系統誤認為肺細胞是外來物從而發起進攻，病人是被自己的免疫系統殺死的」，是否屬實？\n\n查核中心透過新興科技媒體中心，採訪中興大學獸醫病理生物學研究所教授吳弘毅。他指出，這樣的說法語意不夠精確。細菌或病毒到達體內後，人體會啟動免疫系統來清除這些外來入侵者，但這些病毒會誘使免疫系統過度反應，進而傷害到身體的組織，這是引發肺炎的主要機制。例如此次新型冠狀病毒最常攻擊的是肺臟。\n\n爭議點三、傳言指稱「目前市面上所有藥物均無效...肺炎目前無藥可治，只能用類固醇來保命」？\n\n查核中心透過新興科技媒體中心，採訪研究冠狀病毒的台大獸醫系副教授陳慧文。她表示，目前針對冠狀病毒的藥物都在實驗研發階段，尚未有核可上市的藥物，且實際上僅有少部分的藥物可用來治療病毒性的疾病，例如：治療流感病毒的克流感、治療愛滋病的雞尾酒療法、皰疹病毒的藥物等。\n\n陳慧文說，「無藥可醫」不代表「無法醫治」，以感冒來說，感冒也沒有專屬藥物，都是透過吃維他命C、多休息，以增強免疫力來恢復健康。\n\n台灣感染症醫學會理事長、台大醫院小兒部主任黃立民說，在國際上並未採用「類固醇」來治療武漢肺炎，這是錯誤的傳言。\n\n他說，在台灣是採取支持性療法，醫院提供給確診病患足夠的氧氣、替病患拍痰、監控血壓等方式，讓病人撐過兩週的急性期，病人是靠自體免疫機制，產生抗體，來恢復健康。\n\n至於中國採取一種愛滋病藥物來治療新型冠狀病毒，衛福部傳染病防治醫療網指揮官張上淳於2020年1月26日的記者會上表示，這是中國在初期不知道有什麼好的治療藥物，而採取的治療方式，尚未有更多資料證實，採用此藥物能得到更好的癒後效果。\n\n他說，在學理上，病毒誘發「細胞激素風暴」，引起嚴重發炎反應可能造成休克，如果用干擾素等藥物，可減少細胞激素所造成影響，但由於國內還未碰到重症個案，因此尚未使用干擾素等藥物，沒有足夠證據知道結果會如何。\n\n黃立民補充，這是因為之前在MERS的時候，有人使用此愛滋病藥物，似乎有改善，因此這是把MERS的經驗套用到新冠病毒，因為新冠病毒目前也沒有藥物可用，所以就試試看，目前仍不清楚是不是有效，應該很快就會有進一步的資料可以來佐證。\n\n爭議點四、傳言指稱「乙酸（白醋）對病毒有效...加水稀釋噴在空間中消毒...」，是否屬實？\n\n黃立民說，清潔和消毒環境可以使用稀釋過後的漂白水和濃度75%的酒精，但白醋並未有殺菌消毒的作用，不建議使用白醋。\n\n結論\n\n一、世界衛生組織將「武漢肺炎」正名為「2019新型冠狀病毒（2019n-Cov）」，而SARI是統稱需要住院的肺炎。\n\n二、新冠狀病毒的確沒有疫苗和藥物，而是採用支持性療法。\n\n三、國際並未採用類固醇來治療新冠病毒。\n\n四、噴灑白醋不能消毒殺菌。\n\n因此，此傳言為「部分錯誤」訊息。\n\n參考資料\n\n衛福部疾管署新聞稿〈中央流行疫情指揮中心鄭重呼籲，本中心成立期間，流行疫情或防制措施等皆由本中心統一對外公布，民眾切勿轉傳未經證實或來源不明之疫情資訊〉WHO〈Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV)〉"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]}]}],["createdAt","2020-02-10T02:43:40.729Z"]]}]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["article",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",2],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",1],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_56sY5We8TIfM_62-ZyFHMJyWUQ0kpjIaGPxhi4bM83U"],["name","盡職認真的阿里山陸斯恩"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","Inhibition of SARS-CoV 3C-like Protease Activity by Theaflavin-3,3′-digallate (TF3)"],["url","https://bit.ly/2t6y7ij"],["summary","Chia-Nan Chen,1,* Coney P. C. Lin,1,* Kuo-Kuei Huang,1 Wei-Cheng Chen,1 Hsin-Pang Hsieh,1 Po-Huang Liang,2 and John T.-A. Hsu1,3,†This article has been cited by other articles in PMC.AbstractSARS-CoV is the causative agent of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). The virally encoded 3C-like protease (3CLPro) has been presumed critical for the viral replication of SARS-CoV in infected host cells. In this study, we screened a natural product library consisting of 720 compounds for inhibitory activity against 3CLPro. Two compounds in the library were found to be inhibitive: tannic acid (IC50 = 3 µM) and 3-isotheaflavin-3-gallate (TF2B) (IC50 = 7 µM). These two compounds belong to a group of natural polyphenols found in tea. We further investigated the 3CLPro-inhibitory activity of extracts from several different types of teas, including green tea, oolong tea, Puer tea and black tea. Our results indicated that extracts from Puer and black tea were more potent than that from green or oolong teas in their inhibitory activities against 3CLPro. Several other known compositions in teas were also evaluated for their activities in inhibiting 3CLPro. We found that caffeine, (—)-epigallocatechin gallte (EGCg), epicatechin (EC), theophylline (TP), catechin (C), epicatechin gallate (ECg) and epigallocatechin (EGC) did not inhibit 3CLPro activity. Only theaflavin-3,3′-digallate (TF3) was found to be a 3CLPro inhibitor. This study has resulted in the identification of new compounds that are effective 3CLPro inhibitors.Keywords: natural products, 3CLPro, black tea, TF2B, TF3IntroductionSevere acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is caused by a newly discovered coronavirus, SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) (1,2). From November 1, 2002 to June 18, 2003, a total of 8465 probable SARS cases were reported to the World Health Organization from 29 countries, and 801 people died from this disease. The case–fatality proportion was ∼10%. Although the spread of the virus has been averted, the re-emergence of SARS is still in question (3–6).Like other related coronaviruses, SARS-CoV is an enveloped virus containing single-stranded RNA of positive polarity. Coronaviruses have the largest genomes known (∼30 kb) among RNA viruses [7]. The genome of SARS-CoV comprises one open reading frame (ORF) encoding two overlapping replicase polyproteins, polyprotein-1a (pp1a, ∼450 kDa) and poplyprotein-1ab (pp1ab, ∼750 kDa), responsible for virus replication (7). The rest of the genome comprises at least five ORFs encoding structural proteins and other genes with putative functions (8,9). Proteolytic processing, especially the processing of replicase polyproteins, is one of the crucial steps in the life cycle of many positive-stranded RNA viruses, including coronaviruses. All coronaviruses encode a papline-like protease (PLP) and a chymotrypsin-like (3CLPro) protease for proteolytic procession during virus maturation (10). Studies on other coronaviruses have shown that the PLP protein cleaves at no less than two sites on the pp1a polyprotein and that the 3CLPro protease cleaves at least 11 inter-domain sites on the pp1a and pp1ab polyproteins [7]. Thus, the 3CLPro protease of SARS-CoV has been considered as an important molecular target for anti-SARS-CoV drug discovery and developments. In this study, after screening of a natural product library and further confirmation, we found that SARS-3CLPro could be inhibited by compounds that are abundant in teas. We also examined crude extracts from various teas and a panel of representative natural products in teas for their inhibitory activities against SARS-3CLPro.MethodsPreparation of SARS-CoV 3CLProTotal RNA extracted from a throat swab of a SARS patient was provided by the Center for Disease Control (CDC), Taipei, Taiwan. All RNA samples were handled under bio-safety level 2 (BSL2) regulations. Two primers, 5′-GGCGGAATTCGCCTCTACCAACCACCACAGA-3′ and 5′-GGCGGAATTCA AAGCATCCAATGATGAGTGCC-3′, were used for reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction (RT–PCR) to synthesize the cDNA of SARS-3CLPro using Ready-to-Go RT–PCR Beads (Amersham Biosciences, Piscataway, NJ) according to the manufacturer's protocol. The PCR cycle used for the amplification of cDNA of SARS-3CLPro was as follows: 94°C for 5 min, 25 cycles of 94°C for 1 min, 58°C for 3 min, 72°C for 2 min and 72°C for 10 min. A full-length 3CLPro of SARS coronavirus was successfully expressed in Escherichia coli as a glutathione S-transferase (GST) fusion protein. Following cleavage by thrombin, 3CLPro was purified to homogeneity. A 15mer peptide with sequence H2N-SITSAVLQSGFRKMA-COOH corresponding to an autocleavage site of the SARS-3CLPro was synthesized and used for protease cleavage activity assay. The highly purified protein was shown by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis to exhibit proteolytic activity in trans.Compound CollectionThe Pure Natural Products Library used to screen for 3CLPro inhibition was obtained from MicroSource Discovery Systems, Inc., Gaylordsville, CT. It consists of a unique collection of 720 pure natural products. The collection includes simple and complex oxygen heterocycles, alkaloids, sequiterpenes, diterpenes, pentacyclic triterpenes, sterols and many other diverse representatives. Initially, 10 different compounds were pooled, and the mixtures were tested for their inhibitory activities against SARS-3CLPro. Positive pools were then deconvoluted and single pure compounds that were able to inhibit >50% of peptide cleavage at 10 µM were scored as hits. Other compounds were obtained from Sigma (St Louis, MO). Theaflavin (TF1), TF2 [a mixture of TF-2A (theaflavin-3-gallate) and TF-2B (theaflavin-3′-gallate)] and theaflavin-3,3′-digallate (TF3) were kind gifts from Dr Yu-Chih Liang, School of Medical Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.Preparation of Crude Extracts from Oolong Tea, Green Tea, Black Tea and Puer TeaTea liquors were prepared from oolong tea, green tea, black tea and Puer tea (also called pu-er or pu-erh) samples as 2% (w/v) tea solutions. The water extracts of four different types of tea leaves were prepared by shaking for 10 min in boiling hot water in thermal flasks. The extracts were then filtered through a Millex-GS 0.22 µm filter (Millipore, Malsheim, France) to remove particulate matter. The water extracts were then evaporated under reduced pressure to obtain viscous masses. These materials were evaluated for their inhibitory activities against SARS-3CLPro.Inhibition of Protease Activity of SARS-3CLPro by HPLC AssayA general cysteine protease inhibitor, N-ethylmaleimide (NEM, protease inhibitor as positive control), was obtained from Sigma (St Louis, MO). This compound was tested for its inhibitory activities against SARS-3CLPro in the peptide cleavage assay. The activities of the proteases were measured in the absence or presence of different concentrations of these general inhibitors. The enzyme (2 µM) was pre-incubated with chemicals for 30 min. Peptide was then added at 100 µM to the reaction, and mixtures were incubated at 37°C for 1 h. The potency of the inhibitors was calculated. The HPLC analysis condition is: a C18 RP guard column (250 × 4.6 mm × 5 µm, Agilent Zorbax Extend). This method was chosen because it gave the best resolution among several methods that were tested. The column temperature was ambient, and the elution (0.8 ml/min) was performed using a solvent system comprising solvents A [10 MM NH4OAc, 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA)] and B (acetonitrile, 0.1% TFA) mixed using a gradient starting with 100% A, linearly decreasing to 10% A in 8 min, to 100% A in 16 min, and held at 100% A for 23 min. The injection volume was 40 ml. The UV detector was set at 214 nm.Proteolytic Activity of SARS-3CLPro by Fluorogenic Substrate Peptide AssayThe development of a fluorescent protease activity assay has been reported previously (7). The enhanced fluorescence due to cleavage of the fluorogenic substrate peptide (Dabcyl-KTSAVLQSGFRKME-Edans) catalyzed by the protease was monitored at 538 nm with excitation at 355 nm using a fluorescence plate reader (Fluoroskan Ascent from ThermoLabsystems, Sweden). The fluorimetric assay was used to determine the IC50 of identified inhibitors on SARS 3CLPro activity. The protease was stored in the buffer containing 12 mM Tris–HCl (pH 7.5), 120 mM NaCl, 0.1 mM EDTA, 7.5 mM 2-mercaptoethanol and 1 mM dithiothreitol (DTT) at −70°C before use.ResultsScreening of a 720 Compound Library Against 3CLPro Activity by HPLC AssayThe spectrum collection, a library of 720 drugs and natural products, was screened for 3CLPro inhibitory activity. A flowchart of the screening procedure is shown in Fig. 1. Initially, 10 different compounds were pooled, and the 72 mixtures were then tested for their inhibitory activities against SARS-3CLPro. The HPLC assay was used in the primary screening because many compounds in the library are chromogenic. Single compounds in the positive pools were then evaluated for their activities. Two compounds, tannic acid and TF2B, were found to be active against 3CLPro (Fig. 2). Tannic acid is a water-soluble polyphenol present in plant food such as tea, red wine, beer and nuts. In addition, tea polyphenols and many tannin components are thought to be anticarcinogenic (14,15).Flowchart of the screening of the compound library and tea compositions.Inhibition of 3CL Pro activity by HPLC assay. Injection of 40 µl of incubation samples for C18 reverse phase column analysis. The substrate or product fragment peaks were analyzed by HPLC with UV absorbance detection at 214 nm. The HPLC system is described in Methods.Evaluation of Tea Extracts and Pure Components from Teas for Their Inhibition of 3CLPro ActivitySince many other polyphenols related to tannic acid and TF2B are also present in various kinds of teas, we decided to examine the inhibition of activity by various tea extracts and several well known pure ingredients present in teas. Thus, water extracts from different types of teas were prepared and evaluated for their inhibitory activities against 3CLPro. As shown in Table 1, extracts from black and Puer teas inhibited 3CLPro activity while those from green or oolong teas did not. We further tested the possible involvement of several known ingredients present in teas, including caffeine, theophylline, catechin (C), epigallocatechin (EGC), (—)-epigallocatechin gallte (EGCg), epicatechin (EC), epicatechin gallate (ECg), TF1, TF2, TF2B, tannic acid and TF3. As shown in Table 1, the results showed that methylxanthine (caffeine and theophylline) did not influence 3CLPro activity; catechins, including C, EC, ECg, EGC and EGCg, present in green tea (unfermented) and oolong tea (partial fermented) also did not inhibit 3CLPro activity. Our results indicated that tannic acid, TF2B and TF3 are 3CLPro inhibitors as revealed by the fluorogenic substrate assay (Fig. 3). TF2A was not tested because of its unavailability.Inhibition of 3CLPro activity by fluorogenic substrate peptide assay. Inhibition of 3CLPro activity by tannic acid, TF1, TF2B, TF3 and EGCg. The enhanced fluorescence due to cleavage of the fluorogenic substrate peptide catalyzed by the protease was monitored at 538 nm with exicitation at 355 nm using a fluorescence plate reader. The determining assay is described in Methods.Table 1Inhibition of SARS 3CLPro activity by natural productsCompound libraryIC50 (µM)3-Isotheaflavin-3-gallate (TF2B)7Tannic acid3Tea extractIC50 (µg/ml)Oolong tea125Green tea125Black tea70Puer tea25Other compositions in green teaIC50 (µM)Caffeine100Theophylline100Catechin (C)100Epigallocatechin (EGC)100(–)-Epigallocatechin gallte (EGCg)100Epicatechin (EC)100Epicatechin gallate (ECg)100Theaflavin composition in black teaIC50 (µM)Theaflavin (TF1)56Theaflavin-3-gallate,TF-2a and43Theaflavin-3′ -gallate,TF-2b mixture (TF2)Theaflavin-3,3′ -digallate (TF3)9.5TF2B and TF3 as Potent Agents Against 3CLPro Inhibitory ActivityThe natural product screened library consisted of simple and complex oxygen heterocycles, alkaloids, sequiterpenes, diterpenes, pentacyclic triterpenes, sterols and many other diverse representatives. Numerous black tea polyphenols (especially those of TF1, TF2 and TF3) were found to inhibit 3CLPro. In black tea, TF3 was the most abundant (1.05%) followed by TF2A (0.34%), TF2B (0.11%) and TF1 (0.08%) (16). It is interesting to note that TF3 contained two gallate groups attached to the 3,3′ positions as shown in Fig. 4b. TF2A and TF2B, on the other hand, consisted of only one gallate group attached either to the 3 or the 3′ positions, respectively (Fig. 4b). In contrast, no gallate group was attached to TF1. Results in Table 1, indicating that the gallate group attached to the 3′ position to TF2B and TF3, might be important for interaction with the 3CLPro active site. EC, EGCg, ECG and EGC were much less active (IC50 ≥ 100 µM) than theaflavins.Chemical structures of tannic acid, catechins and TFs.DiscussionHuman coronaviruses (HCoVs) are major causes of upper respiratory tract illness in animals including humans. It has been demonstrated that a novel coronavirus causes SARS. The main protease, frequently called 3C-like protease (3CLPro), has been identified as an attractive drug target (17). Of the 720 natural products screened in this study, tannic acid (Fig. 4a) and TF2B were identified using the HPLC proteolytic assay to inhibit 50% of the proteolytic acitivity of 3CLPro at concentrations ≤10 µM. Both tannic acid and TF2B belong to the group of natural polyphenols found in teas. Low concentrations of tannic acid were found to inhibit proteases including tissue-type plasminogen activator, urokinase-type plasminogen activator and plasmin activity [13]. Over 300 different kinds of tea are now produced, but they are classified into three main forms: green tea is manufactured by drying fresh tea leaves, with emphasis on the prevention of oxidation of the tea polyphenols during the manufacturing process. In contrast, the manufacture of black tea is characterized by a high degree of fermentation, which produces a series of chemical condensations among the ingredients present in tea. Oolong tea is partially fermented, and the tea compositions are more similar to those found in green tea (18). In evaluating different types of tea, we found that extracts from several different types of tea, including Puer and black tea, could inhibit 3CLPro activity while green or oolong tea could not. However, the chemical composition in Puer tea is very complex and it is difficult to isolate pure ingredients for structural identification. Purification and identification of Puer tea ingredients should be carried out in a separate study.We next examined whether other well-known ingredients present in tea could also inhibit 3CLPro activity. We found that methylxanthine (caffeine and theophylline) and catechins (EGCg, EC, C, ECg and EGC) were not able to inhibit 3CLPro activity at concentrations up to 100 µM (Table 1). However, TF1, TF2 and TF3 were more potent 3CLPro inhibitors than catechins in green tea. During the fermentation step in the production of black tea, most of the catechins are oxidized and condensed into theaflavins through dimerization and into thearubigins through polymerization. Green tea contains ∼30% of catechins (dry mass base) while black tea contains ∼9% of catechins and 4% of theaflavins (19). In another study, Leung et al. (16) reported that TF3 was the most abundant (1.05%) theaflavin in black tea followed by TF2A (0.34%), TF2B (0.11%) and TF1 (0.08%). Tannic acid is a class of polyphenolic in plants but the quantification of its levels in green or black tea is difficult because tannic acid constitutes a wide range of polymers with mol. wts of 500–3000 Da.It is interesting to note that TF2B and TF3 are more potent inhibitors of 3CLPro than TF1 (Table 1). Unlike TF2B and TF3, TF1 does not contain a gallate group (Fig. 4b). Thus, the addition of a gallate group attached at the 39 position to TF2B and TF3 might be important for their inhibitory activity against 3CLPro. These results suggest that TF2B and TF3 might be good starting points for the design of more active inhibitors for the 3CLPro encoded by SARS-CoV.Finally, this study has identified three compounds (TF2B, TF3 and tannic acid) that are effective 3CLPro inhibitors (IC50 ≤10 µM). These compounds are abundant in the extract of black tea (16,19). Black tea is a popular beverage in the world. Results from this study warrant further investigation to examine the effect of these natural products in inhibition of SARS-CoV replication in cell culture. Clark et al. reported that theaflavins extracted from black tea were able to neutralize bovine coronavirus and rotavirus infections (20). Thus, it will be very interesting to evaluate, in a separate study, whether drinking black tea can prevent or alleviate the infection of an enteric form of coronavirus since SARS-CoV is known to actively replicate in the intestinal tract (21).AcknowledgmentsWe thank Dr Tzong-Der Way for providing excellent technical support. This work was supported in part by funds and facilities of NHRI of Taiwan and by Grants NSC92-2751-B-400-006-Y to X.C and J.T.A.H. and NSC92-2751-B-001-012-Y to P.H.L. from the National Science Council, Taiwan.References1. Ksiazek TG, Erdman D, Goldsmith CS, Zaki SR, Peret T, Emery S, et al. A novel coronavirus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome. 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[PubMed] [Google Scholar]"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","インフルエンザ予防に効果的！鳥取大学と産官学で研究開発。科学的に確認された紅茶の力｜澤井珈琲 - ものくろぼっくす"],["url","https://bit.ly/3aOJ3Ci"],["summary","抗インフルエンザ寒さが厳しい毎日です。この寒い冬、やっかいなのがインフルエンザです。予防接種での対策も大切ですが、毎日の手洗い・うがい・マスクの徹底が一番です。受験シーズンです。また、仕事も年明け・年度末に向けての大切な時期。受験生をはじめ学生さん、多忙なビジネスマンの皆さん、インフルエンザの予防に頭を悩ませているのではないでしょうか？。すごい紅茶が登場しました。大学と県研究機関が「抗インフルエンザ作用」を学術的に確認した紅茶です。まずは飲んでみた「抗インフルエンザ作用」を持つ紅茶はこちらです。早速、1本飲んでみました。口にしたとき、「あれ」と思いました。「普通の紅茶だ」そう、勝手に”くすりのように独特の味”があると思い込んでいました。かすかな甘みと濃厚なリーフの味です。というより「おいしい！」いや、これかなりいい感じですよ。1つ280mlと少し少ないなと思っていましたが、少し”とろみ”のある、とても濃いリーフの味、十二分に楽しめました。一気に飲み干すのはちょっとしんどい。それぐらい濃いです。でも後味はスッキリです。味は”午後の紅茶ストレート”を濃厚にした感じです。すいません、紅茶だから当然ですよね。例えが分かりにくく、ごめんなさい（特別な味はしないんです、そこが伝われば幸いです）。で、効果は？1つ飲んだからといって、インフルエンザ予防の効果は分からですし、飲み続けて、Alがインフルエンザにならなかったから”効果あり”ということにもならないです。ですが、美味しい。これは確かです。毎日の昼下がりに紅茶を楽しみながら、インフルエンザ予防効果が得られるならどうでしょう。こんな美味しい話は見逃せません。ちょっと値段が、毎日飲むのにどうかな？という気もします。しかし、インフルエンザになったときの辛さと比べると、予防できるならとも感じるのです。晩酌の量をちょっと減らせば、コストを穴埋めできます（アルコールも減って健康にいいですよ）。その効果はどのようにして確認されているのか？を調べました。産官学の成果このとろみ紅茶は澤井珈琲Beans＆Leafさんが商品開発され、販売されています。コーヒー豆と紅茶リーフの販売で有名な鳥取境港の会社さんです。楽天市場のコーヒー部門 1位！のショップさんです。鳥取大学医学部と（地独）鳥取県産業技術センターでの共同研究における成果にて、この開発した紅茶が抗インフルエンザ作用、ならびにポリフェノールの機能性を持つことが明らかになりました。研究では、インフルエンザ予防効果が「培養細胞レベル」で実証されました。この「とろみ紅茶」のインフルエンザウィルスの感染を抑える効果が確認されました。インフルエンザ予防に効果的なのです。研究結果この研究結果は大きく取り上げられました。(0684)鳥取県次世代・地域資源産業育成事業により開発された「とろみ紅茶：テアフラティー」に係る知事報告／報道提供資料／とりネット／鳥取県公式ホームページ景山　誠二 …昨今の健康ブームを反映して、各種健康飲料の市場は堅調な推移を見せている。・開発に当たって、鳥取大学医学部では、培養細胞によるテアフラビンの抗インフルエンザ作用の試験を実施。また、産業技術センター食品開発研究所では、高濃度のテアフラ　ビン黒紅茶の製造条件確立等の技術支援を行った。・これら関係機関の支援を受け、商品完成に至ったもの。澤井珈琲から健康茶「とろみ紅茶」新発売！/関西本部/とりネット/鳥取県公式サイト境港市の澤井珈琲が鳥取大学などと、抗インフルエンザ作用が見込める紅茶を開発しました。健康のために１度お試しくださいませ。株式会社澤井珈琲様から感謝状と寄付金を頂きました。：鳥取県産業技術センター株式会社澤井珈琲様はオリジナル商品であるコーヒーや紅茶飲料おいて、産業技術センター　食品開発研究所が技術支援し、「認知症」、「インフルエンザ」の予防が期待される機能性成分を製品中に保持させた商品の開発に成功しました。澤井珈琲～SAWAI COFFEEとろみ紅茶テアフラティー完成。(PDF)山陰中央テレビ/日本経済新聞/日本海新聞/山陰中央新報で紹介されました。(PDF)このように鳥取県が全面的に技術支援・バックアップを行っていました。鳥取大学医学部からのプレスリリースは見つけることができませんでしたが、これは研究成果の詳細は企業機密のため公表できないためと思われます。まとめ鳥取大学医学部と鳥取県産業技術センター、そして、澤井珈琲の共同研究で開発された紅茶を紹介しました、鳥取大学の研究にて、インフルエンザの予防効果が確認された紅茶です。かすかな甘みと濃厚なリーフの味で、「おいしい！」紅茶です。インフルエンザの効果の前に、美味しい紅茶ですからうれしい製品です。毎日の昼下がりに紅茶を楽しみながら、インフルエンザ予防効果が得られる素晴らしいものです。紅茶で気分をリフレッシュ、そして、インフルエンザの感染防止と、心と体の両方にすばらしい効果があります。この寒さ厳しい冬も万全の体調でがんばる忙しいあなた、受験シーズン真っ只中のあなたにおすすめします！。インフルエンザに負けない！そんなあなたにおすすめ！あわせて読みたい！紅茶がインフルエンザ予防に効果あり？その研究結果を読んでみた。 | BOX of Pictures共同研究の内容についてのレビュー記事です。"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","LINE Add Friend"],["url","https://goo.gl/RCjM0v"],["summary","Add LINE Friends via QR Code\nOpen the Friends tab in your LINE app, tap the add friends icon inthe top right, select \"QR code,\" and then scan this QR code.\n\nLearn more about LINE \nDownload now"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]}]}],["text","台灣紅茶大力推！👍🏻\n紅茶茶黃質抗冠狀病毒！\n紅茶所含的茶黃素(TF3)，不僅形成紅茶深邃的顏色，也能夠阻止冠狀病毒的複製。\n這篇論文是台灣中央研究院與國家衛生研究院發表的文章。屬於論文級別的報導，可信度高。\n論文出處：https://bit.ly/2t6y7ij\n\n日本產、官、學合作開發的とろみ紅茶，加入纖維提升2～3倍的茶黃素(TF3)，原來訴求抗流感病毒，現在用來抗冠狀病毒。😷\n原文連結：とろみ紅茶\nhttps://bit.ly/3aOJ3Ci\n\n歡迎加入\n「台茶檢驗」LINE@\nhttps://goo.gl/RCjM0v\n請按個讚喔！"],["id","84m776m17hh8"],["createdAt","2020-01-31T03:18:46.993Z"]]}],["reply",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","LGTF-W8Bd3n3h-WYIN9T"],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","_1YnAG8BV0DITCqGm7go"],["name","uienwt"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",18]]}],["type","RUMOR"],["text","紅茶沒有如此的療效，不建議參考網路上不明秘方，無論在中醫或西醫的觀點，在醫學上都明顯缺乏根據。"],["reference","https://news.ltn.com.tw/news/life/breakingnews/1619630\nhttps://www.mygopen.com/2020/01/traditional-Chinese-medicine.html\nhttps://www.thenewslens.com/article/95041"],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","多喝水、吃維他命C是錯的？醫師教你正確抗流感 - 生活 - 自由時報電子報"],["url","https://news.ltn.com.tw/news/life/breakingnews/1619630"],["summary","流感疫情嚴峻，基隆長庚醫院急診室爆滿，病床排到走廊上。（記者林欣漢攝）\n \n\n\n 2016-03-03 09:42:06〔即時新聞／綜合報導〕國內流感疫情發燒，造成急診塞爆。坊間流傳各種抗流感的方法，對此有專家提醒，像是多喝水、多吃維他命C、發燒冰敷或運動等方式，不但對症狀無益，還可能加重病情。蘋果「動新聞」報導，疾管署防疫醫師羅一鈞說，流感症狀包括發燒、全身肌肉痠痛、及感冒症狀等，很多民眾會多喝水潤喉，但喝水並不能預防流感。此外，多吃大蒜、洋蔥等含維他命C食物，一般也認為可以對抗病毒，但根據國外研究，維他命C對感冒症狀沒有幫助。請繼續往下閱讀... \n \n羅一鈞還說，發燒時一般人會服藥、冰敷，甚至認為運動流汗可以幫助降體溫，其實這樣更耗體力，身體免疫力下降，恐讓流感症狀更嚴重。他提醒，除了接種疫苗預防流感，最好的方法就是外出戴口罩、勤洗手，降低接觸流感病毒的機會。若染上流感，應在家多休息，一旦有呼吸急促、胸痛或血痰等重症前兆，應儘速到大醫院掛急診。\n\n \n\n\n\n \n\n \n 不用抽不用搶現在用APP看新聞保證天天中獎　\n 點我下載APP　\n 按我看活動辦法"],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","【易誤解】武漢肺炎中醫姜教授公開藥方能預防治療？沒有根據"],["url","https://www.mygopen.com/2020/01/traditional-Chinese-medicine.html"],["summary","由於武漢肺炎的狀況，網路流傳許多不明藥方說可以預防，近期 LINE 傳「生黃芪9克，北沙參9克，知母9克，連翹12克，蒼朮9克，桔梗6克」這個中醫姜教授開的方子。事實上這是沒有根據的謠言訊息，衛福部表示目前並無特定推薦的治療方式，多採支持性療法，另外中醫師也不建議服用不明藥方。\n\n武漢肺炎中醫姜教授公開藥方的謠言\n原始謠傳版本：生黃芪9克，北沙參9克，知母9克，連翹12克，蒼朮9克，桔梗6克，水煎服，連服6天，預防這次武漢肺炎。這個方子，是北京中醫藥大學姜教授這次開的方子，中醫有祖訓：逢瘟疫時，預防和治療的方子無條件公開，不得靠這個賺沒良心的錢，把這個藥方傳出去。獻愛心！\n訊息說明：不建議參考網路上不明藥方，無論在中醫或西醫的觀點，在醫學上都明顯缺乏根據。建議勤洗手戴口罩，避免出入密閉跟人多的公眾場合來預防。\n實際專家解釋：根據衛福部提供的資料，在治療方面，目前所有的冠狀病毒並無特定推薦的治療方式，多為採用支持性療法。在 SARS 流行期間曾有許多抗病毒藥物被使用來治療病患，但其效果均未被確認。\n\n在預防方面，目前未有疫苗可用來預防冠狀病毒感染。建議的預防措施與其他呼吸道感染相同，包括勤洗手、妥善處理口鼻分泌物等等。\n\n另外以中醫的觀點，對此 MyGoPen 實際詢問桃園中醫診所葉醫師，醫師表示：中醫講求的是辦證論治，每個人的體質因人而異，更何況在疾病不同的病程，用藥一定會不同，所以還是要讓專業的中醫師診斷後才可以服藥，不需要提前服用不符合自己當下體質的不明藥方。\n資料來源：衛福部 - 疾病介紹"],["topImageUrl","https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-SliqY0s15QA/XilcsOv7p6I/AAAAAAABtRo/_cwP2GFygcQ6rKFpRLS-2Wd2ivzIvhtDACLcBGAsYHQ/w1200-h630-p-k-no-nu/known.jpg"],["error",null]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","實證科學破解飲食迷思：維他命C可以預防、紓緩感冒？ - The News Lens 關鍵評論網"],["url","https://www.thenewslens.com/article/95041"],["summary","作者：蔡正亮科學觀點維他命C並不是藥物，因此不具有治療及改善感冒的作用。讓我們從認識維他命C的生理功能，來了解它與免疫之間的關係。也許你曾聽說每當快要感冒的時候，總會有人建議：「趕快多吃維他命C，這樣可以幫助預防感冒喔！」甚至，感冒症狀出現的時候，也會有人立即吃維他命C補充劑，認為這麼做可以對抗感冒。別覺得意外，這樣的迷思，不只臺灣，即使國外也都流傳已久。甚至你會發現，一般感冒成藥的成分，都少不了維他命C。久而久之，「多吃維他命C，可以幫助預防、改善感冒」的迷思便口耳相傳，似是而非地形成。究竟，維他命C扮演什麼樣的生理功能？為什麼有人總把「維他命C」跟「對抗感冒」連結在一起，以上是否有科學證據的佐證呢？事實的真相是民俗偏方中就曾提過，當覺得快要感冒，或者已感冒了幾天，可以嘗試喝「可樂煮檸檬」，幾次下來，感冒的症狀便可逐漸遠離。這樣的說法至今仍有人深信不疑。有人認為檸檬含有豐富的維他命C，對感冒的預防及改善發揮了作用。可樂煮檸檬的適口性的確較佳，甜甜的、熱騰騰地入喉，或許有幾分保暖作用。不過，其實「煮檸檬」這個過程，卻無疑地破壞了維他命C。維他命C不耐熱，暴露空氣中也不穩定，陽光、熱及空氣都是維他命C的天敵。加熱後的維他命C，結構被破壞，失去營養特性，再加上可樂加熱後，碳酸會揮發成二氧化碳，所以實際上的可樂煮檸檬，只是比較有檸檬味道的糖水。關鍵概念釐清1：維他命C是一種水溶性的維他命營養素，人體無法製造，只能藉由飲食提供。同時它並不是藥物，因此不具有任何治療及改善感冒的作用。維他命C是一種水溶性的維他命，我們身體無法製造，因此它是必須營養素，需要每天透過飲食來補充。維他命C的吸收方式不同於脂溶性的維他命（如維他命A、D、E、K）。人無法大量儲存在體內，因此，當我們攝入超過身體所需的維他命C（一般成人，維他命C的每日建議量是100毫克），多餘的量不會被吸收，而是隨著尿液流逝。說到維他命C的生理功能，可說非常多元，首先，維他命C可以幫助「膠原蛋白」的合成。膠原蛋白是構成人體肌膚、骨骼、皮膚等結締組織的重要材料。所以，維他命C有助於傷口癒合，維持牙齒、肌膚及骨骼的正常發展。另外一個功能是，維他命C扮演非常重要的「抗氧化」角色。它可以幫助我們身體清除有害的「過氧化物」及「自由基」。簡單來說，生物都需要呼吸以維持生命，呼吸需要氧氣，但氧氣是不穩定的分子，氧氣會在體內製造很多的負面產物，這些負面產物我們通常稱為「自由基」（free radicals）。自由基非常活躍且不穩定，它會攻擊細胞，增加氧化壓力，造成細胞損傷。一般科學家普遍相信，過多的自由基是導致慢性疾病與老化的主要因素。關鍵概念釐清2：目前還沒有足夠的科學證據支持「補充維他命C可以直接預防或改善感冒」。但是，維他命C確實在免疫系統發揮特定的生理功能，因此，具有健全的免疫系統則可以降低感冒的發生機率。感冒起因多來自土壤或空氣中散播之細菌或病毒之感染，感染造成人體免疫系統有所反應，因此，引起一系列症狀，如發燒、喉嚨痛、打噴嚏、流鼻水等。如前面所提，維他命C的生理功能這麼重要，但跟感冒之間存在什麼樣的關係？國外已發表相關人體研究，試著找出問題的答案一套有效防治高血壓的飲食計畫。澳洲科學家Audera等人在2001年發表的研究中，招募400位健康成人進行長達18個月的實驗，最後完成實驗有149位。研究顯示，參加者補充高單位的維他命C之後（每日約1000毫克，是一般成人建議的10倍），後來得到感冒的人，症狀也並沒有改善，罹患感冒的時間也沒有因此縮短。芬蘭科學家Hemilä及Chalker在2013年發表的研究，以「文獻統整後設分析」（Meta-analysis），蒐集1966~2012年所有有關「維他命C與改善感冒」的人體研究資料。經過統計分析後，作者歸納了重點，「目前沒有明顯的研究支持補充維他命C可以直接預防、改善感冒」。但作者指出，在某些特殊的案例下，例如對於正在接受嚴格訓練的馬拉松選手或極限運動的選手等，補充維他命C之後，可以發現，得到感冒的機率是明顯較低的。美國科學家Heimer等人在2009年的文獻回顧報告則提到不同的觀點，「不管是大人或小孩，某些情況下，補充維他命C也許有助於縮短感冒的持續時間，但對感冒症狀，沒有觀察到有改善的情形」。透過以上整理，我們可以了解「透過補充維他命C，來達到預防或改善感冒」仍是言過其實、沒有科學佐證的說法。不過，單就理論來看，維他命C的確可能對生物的免疫系統發揮某種程度的作用，有助於減少細菌感染的可能性，只是在人體研究中，我們看不出這樣的結果。德國科學家Ströhle及Hahn等人在2009年的報告指出，「從細胞培養的實驗中，觀察免疫系統的巨噬細胞及T細胞，在環境中需要有足量維他命C存在，才能增加細胞對抗外來病原菌的能力，減少外菌入侵，降低感染機率」。瑞士的科學家Wintergerst等人在2006年的報告表示，人在感染和壓力的特殊生理情況下，血漿及白血球的維他命C含量會下降，這可能說明免疫細胞會消耗維他命C，以發揮正常的免疫功能。營養師小結論「透過補充維他命C，來達到預防或改善感冒」仍是言過其實、沒有科學佐證的說法。但是，維他命C對人體的免疫系統扮演重要的功能。所以，如果在維他命C缺乏或不足的情況之下，可能影響免疫系統的正常運作，降低對抗外來病原菌或病毒感染的能力，則有可能增加感冒的發生機會。每天攝取足夠的維他命C（一般成人每日只需要100毫克），就可以維持正常免疫功能。感冒發生時，若特別補充補他命C，想藉此改善感冒症狀或以預防感冒為目的，從現有的科學證據來看，效果是徒勞無功的。富含維他命C之蔬菜水果 \t\t\t \t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t蔬菜類 \t\t\t\t\t\t（以下蔬菜皆以生食表示，不經加熱烹煮） \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t維他命C（毫克）含量／每100公克 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t水果類 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t維他命C（毫克）含量／每100公克 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t甜椒（紅） \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t138 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t芭樂（白肉） \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t126 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t甜椒（黃） \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t127 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t釋迦 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t99 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t青椒 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t107 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t奇異果（金黃） \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t90 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t花椰菜 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t63.7 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t奇異果（綠色） \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t76 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t皇宮菜 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t42.5 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t柳橙（香吉士） \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t75 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t油菜 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t31 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t草莓 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t70 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t高麗菜 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t30 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t木瓜 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t60 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t青江菜 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t28 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t小番茄 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t50 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t地瓜葉 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t27 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t柳橙（國產） \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t41 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t冬瓜 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t15 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t葡萄柚（紅肉） \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t40 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t紅番茄（大顆） \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t14 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t檸檬 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t34 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t空心菜 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t13 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t橘子 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t28 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t波菜 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t11 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t香蕉 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t\t11 \t\t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t\t \t\t\t\t \t\t\t \t\t\t 上表的資料來源：衛生福利部食品藥物管理署-食品營養成分資料庫（2015版）你可以這樣做蔬菜、水果是維他命C豐富的來源，因為維他命C不耐熱、怕空氣及陽光，經過加熱烹煮（如煮湯、清蒸、燒烤）的蔬菜或加工的水果罐頭，維他命C多半流失而有所損耗，因此，直接食用生鮮的蔬菜水果是最理想、最有效益的方法。但有些蔬菜不適合生吃，若以大火迅速快炒，縮短加熱時間，相較之下則可以減少營養素的流失。不同的蔬菜、水果其維他命C含量有所不同，前述表格整理含有豐富維他命C的常見蔬菜水果，鼓勵大家可多多食用，有益健康。相關書摘 ►用實證科學破解飲食迷思：多吃櫻桃等紅色食物可以補血？書籍介紹《營養師教你不用怕：用實證科學破解27個常見飲食迷思》，遠流出版．透過以上連結購書，《關鍵評論網》由此所得將全數捐贈兒福聯盟。作者：蔡正亮蔡正亮營養師以「實證醫學」為出發點，引用的參考文獻主要為國際SCI發表的科學期刊，讓「數據說話」，綜合詳解近五年來討論度高、具話題性的27個飲食迷思，內容涵蓋四大主題：食品安全、減重瘦身、慢性疾病以及保健食品。以科學數據傳達正確的營養知識，讓你穿透眾說紛紜的謠言迷霧，確實掌握真正健康無負擔的飲食生活。激烈減重減下的，是脂肪還是健康？吃進身體的食品，是營養還是負擔？流言傳來傳去，請相信科學知識才是硬道理。 Photo Credit：遠流出版責任編輯：朱家儀核稿編輯：翁世航"],["topImageUrl","https://image2.thenewslens.com/2018/5/qw5zc290j7mcfunao2sueonfbo7ar3.png?h=628&w=1200"],["error",null]]}]}],["createdAt","2020-01-31T04:04:03.299Z"]]}]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["article",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",1],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",1],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_5BoKz7P6tvCt4DUSlXL451VT_PLWreYIaMMQeNAQ6A0"],["name","適應能力強的坪林普利莫"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","2017最新传销资金盘名单！每次分享有可能会挽救一个家庭！"],["url","https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/Lsm-ospzKnFdfgVzL_xkeg"],["summary","小警之家中国200万警察都在关注关注本文综合来源：十点风云及网络，无需授权，可随意转载 12月27日，据江苏省南京市公安局官方微博“平安南京”消息，钱宝网实际控制人张小雷因涉嫌违法犯罪，于2017年12月26日，向南京市公安机关投案自首。目前南京市公安机关正在开展调查。近些年政府加大了对传销的打击力度，传销逐渐由异地拉人头的传统传销向互联网传销进化，庞氏骗局、集资诈骗与传销犯罪不断交织，由于涉及地域广、人员多、危害大。以下是由小编总结的在国内非常流行的传销组织，请各位朋友提高警惕，世上从来就没有这么轻松就赚大钱的事。防范网络传销，远离骗局，最根本的还是要克服贪欲，不要幻想“一夜暴富”。1、FutureNet（中文名：FN未来网）FutureNet号称公司位于欧洲波兰，成立四年多，全球设立有多家运营公司。业务遍布全球190多个国家，100多万付费会员，宣称利用互联网+大数据+虚拟货币+倍增的趋势，要将FuturoCoin（未来币）打造成未来世界三大数字货币之一。我们来看看这个吹的吊炸天的网站的模式：FN未来网的入门费分为10美金、25美金、50美金、100美金、500美金、1000美金6个级别，每层下面只能有三个人，一层3人，2层9人，3层27人，4层81人，5层243人，到10层59049人！投资185美金，满10层可以赚80万美金！从该模式的设计上来看，借鉴了维卡币的一些套路，该传销组织打着公排滑落、躺赢的旗号大肆进行拉人头的传销勾当，平台充值激活采用比特币充值操作，躲避资金监管，进行违法犯罪活动。FN未来网更是吹嘘自己在社交网站领域排名第一，你让facebook爸爸还怎么混？2、维卡币（目前国内主要犯罪团伙已被摧毁）投资进入维卡币账户的资金，需要等到八十二天以后才能交易，不仅如此，会员每天卖出的维卡币数量还有限制。投资后的交易有限制，而推广收益也有限制。推广会员获得的各种推广收入，60%提现，40%进入交易账户。扣下来的40%用来强制要求买维卡币。投资者在卖出挂单到期后，系统会自动取消卖单。投资者想自行卖出“维卡币”非常困难，而想要变现或退出投资，只能转让整个账号给他人。但实际上，不管它赚了多少，都一定不是你的，因为你无法顺利地卖掉自己的维卡币换成钱，如果不拉人头的话，基本投资的钱都是有去无回。湖南株洲县人民法院一审以组织、领导传销活动罪，分别判处35名被告人缓刑至有期徒刑七年不等的刑罚，并处1万元至500万元不等的罚金。同时，对扣押、冻结在案的涉案资金13.6亿余元及孳息、被告人已退缴的违法所得、随案移送的犯罪工具依法予以没收，上缴国库，对剩余涉案资金及被告人未退缴部分继续予以追缴。虽然维卡币国内主要分支已被摧毁，鉴于该传销网站服务器架设在国外，目前维卡币传销项目死而不僵，仍在国内部分地区活动。3、云数贸五行币只要投资5000元买一枚五行币，5000元买的可不是五行币本身，买的是一种资格，这种资格就是每枚五行币后面附带的会迅速升值的5000数字货币。按照购买时的承诺，五行币除附带的数字货币每隔两到三个月就会涨五倍的价，涨价时发行公司就会分红并赠送新的数字货币，参与者拿着赠送来的数字货币再投入，这样一年之内至少操作五次，也就是所谓的五进五出，计算下来后，5000元买到的五行币静态收益至少就能达到400万元。如果买的人多，价涨得再高些，收入还会更高。这么假的东西，为什么会有那么多人上当受骗？4、人人公益（团伙已被抓）在该网络平台上，投资者（即“天使”）通过向商家购买“爱心”进行投资。人人优益向投资者承诺：每个“爱心”最高5倍分红返利（返还完即收回“天使豆”），即500天可以收回5倍的投资款，提现时直接转入其平台的银行账户。同时，按照投资者拉人头的数量，该公司还设置了“省代理”、“市代理”、“金牌合伙人”、“银牌合伙人”、“普通合伙人”等层级，逐层按比例抽取让利款（即上一层级可以抽取其下面所有层级的让利款）。 2017年3月下旬，省厅经侦局以广州天河、佛山顺德为主战地，组织全省21市经侦部门共派出43个抓捕小组同步在北京、湖南及省内佛山、广州、深圳、河源等地开展收网行动，抓获包括1号主犯仇某（男，54岁）在内的主要犯罪嫌疑人110余名，捣毁传销窝点30余个，现场缴获涉案银行卡、电脑、手机等一大批，冻结涉案账户100余个、资金1700余万元。初步估计涉案金额20余亿元、涉及全国约20万人。5、民族资产解冻（团伙已被抓） “去鸟巢参加‘最高解冻委员会’组织的民族大业国际市场启动大会，只需缴纳10元的胸牌制作费！”“无论您乘坐什么交通工具，国家都给予报销，安排24号食宿，25号开会，在国内外新闻媒体现场，发放每人5万元人民币！”今年4月20日左右，天津大港人陈某英在其组织的微信群中广泛散布这一“紧急通知”。据介绍，她的这一消息来自在广西凌云经营家具生意的杨某兴，自称是“民族资产解冻委员会的工作人员”。陈某英的积极组织得到了9.3万余人的响应，他们将钱打入陈某英的银行账户，并由其转给杨某兴，总额超过90万元。天津市公安局接到公安部通报后迅速开展侦查，截至目前，成功抓获杨某兴、陈某英等涉案人员44人。目前，本案正在进一步侦办中。6、MBI理财（部分团伙被抓，目前国内MBI传销依然猖獗）MBI总部设在马来西亚，和其它传销模式一样，MBI公司盈利模式也分为静态和动态，下面先看看投资后不推荐一个人静态是怎么盈利的：★5000美金（35000元人民币）：经过8次拆分，历时4年即可拥有上百万元人民币； ★2000美元（14000元人民币）：经过10次拆分，历时5年即可拥有上百万元人民币； ★1000美元（7000元人民币）：经过12次拆分，历时6年即可拥有上百万元人民币； ★500美元（3500元人民币）：经过14次拆分，历时7年即可拥有上百万元人民币； ★200美元（1400元人民币）：经过16次拆分，历时8年多即可拥有上百万元人民币； ★100美元（700元人民币）：经过18次拆分，历时9年多即可拥有上百万元人民币江苏省徐州市中级人民法院 2016年12月7日判决 [ MBI ] 何振球、古希萍等组织、领导传销活动罪有期徒刑八年。7、善心汇善心汇的系统叫做“新经济生态系统”，注册需要通过推荐人向公司缴纳会员年费300元/人，开户注册即可获赠黄花梨“善种子”1株。在善心汇这套系统里，目前分为特困社区、贫困社区、小康社区、富人社区、德善社区五个等级；在这里，打款行为称为“布施”，收款行为称为“受助”；在社区内投资，排单打款时需要用到至少1个善心币，善心币价格为100元/个；然后系统按照排队时间安排“布施”，打款成功后，进入“受助”队列，等待收款。在贫穷社区投资3000元，半个月可以收益900元，减去购买善心币的100元，可以获利800元；一个月差不多能排两次单，就可以获利1600元。以一个家庭有5个账号来算的话，一个月家里就可以多收入8000元。这只是静态收益，系统还设有动态收益，即推荐朋友加入善心汇，可以获得系统独有的跳级制推荐奖，第一代拿6%的推荐奖，第三代拿4%的推荐奖，这个设置会促使会员不断拉人加入。推荐奖并不能全部提现，只能提取一半，另一半奖金转为“善金币”，用于旗下酒店、商城、旅游景点等消费。此外，还有第三种赚钱模式，直推十个人就可以做“功德主”。直推十个人就可以做“功德主”，向公司交5万元后，购买“善种子”和“善心币”可以打七折：每个人注册入会时需要交300元获赠一颗“善种子”、排单时需要花100元购买“善心币”，而成为“功德主”可以用210元“善种子”、70元“善心币”的价格购买到，再按全价收取会员费用，赚取中间的差价。善心汇打着慈善、扶贫的旗号，通过发展下线来运作，采用旁氏骗局的资金盘手法进行运作，属于典型的非法传销活动。8、沃尔克外汇理财（已经崩盘跑路） “沃尔克集团号称是英国顶级外汇经纪商，隶属于沃尔克家族。沃尔克家族早在1900年就开始经营期货，至今己有116年历史……”以炒外汇为噱头，吸引了大批淘金投资者，就连对外汇投资没有丁点认知的大爷大妈都可以参与，因为是托管的，只要交钱给 [ 沃尔克 ] 就有所谓的 “基金经理” 帮你打理，完全可以躺着赚钱，啥也不用你干。但被身边亲朋拉进来参与沃尔克的网友发现，这平台炒外汇有猫腻，钱投进来了并赚不到钱，要赚钱就必须拉下线进来投资，从周抽佣，否则本金都无法拿回。该平台 [ 沃尔克 ] 自称来自爱沙尼亚共和国，金融监管号：VVT000360，对外交易银行账户又所属瑞典银行，并且在网上骗纸还附上了煞有其事的各种监管证书、图片等材料。炒外汇开户一般都会赠金的，沃尔克开户竟然还收100美金开户费！估计全球仅此一家，外汇交易是一个高风险的投资，沃尔克竟然能保证客户收益，每月至少5%，而且是月月到手的收益都在5%以上6%以下，沃尔克假外汇真传销无疑。9、龙爱量子QEF　该平台打着“龙爱量子”高科技的名号到处招摇撞骗，下面我们来看看骗子所谓的消费增值理财是什么鬼？　　宣称共发行100万QEF（相当于100万股），每销售5万QEF上涨0.1美元，价格涨到4美元的时候，1股变2股进行拆分，同时QEF的价格恢复到2美元，因为1X4＝2X2，所以你的资产没有变。然后再每销售5万QEF上涨0.1美元，涨到4美元再拆分，2股变4股，以次循环，无限上涨……也就是说消费85000元,一年可以增值到13.5倍,大约可以赚到1155000元.只要投了钱后坐等分钱就好，这收益快比得上1040阳光工程了，吓死小编了。10、世界云联（团伙已被抓）世界云联传销团伙鼓吹只要入驻“世界云联”，将得到八大福利：第一是送云币，赠送虚拟货币；第二是送原始期权股，“世界云联”将于2018年在英国伦敦、香港等地上市；第三是终身提现，只要达到4—900万元授信额度，就享受终身提现的权利；第四是可以贷款；第五是赠送实体超市；第六是管理奖，下线贷款后可分得部分利息成为掌上银行家；第七是终身养老；第八是世袭100年，终生有效。警方查明，这“八大福利”纯属子虚乌有，“世界云联”既没有具体产品，又没有实际工程，纯粹就是“空手套白狼”。“世界云联”有专门的宣传团队，他们到全国20多个城市到处游说讲课，蛊惑人心，以达到榨取钱财的目的。常德市公安局副局长彭进对外宣布，经过3个多月的连续缜密工作，常德市和津市市两级公安机关联合作战，成功破获了一个以西安和深圳两地为主，辐射湖南、广东、陕西、安徽、浙江、北京等全国20多个省市，打着民族的、世界的、生态的幌子，拉人头、发展下线、牟取利益，涉案资金1亿多元的特大传销团伙案。11、赛比安“赛比安”与“WV梦幻之旅”一样实行“双轨制”，鼓励会员分左右两区发展下线，只有两区各达到一定的人数，才能达到相应的等级。按照发展人数，设立从低到高的金字塔等级，依次为创始人、V IP创始人、精英创始人、1到5星级、大使级、黄金大使、铂金大使、钻石大使、总裁大使。“赛比安”和“WV梦幻之旅”一样都是通过“拉人头”的方式发展“团队”，发展下线时收取会员的月费。入会“赛比安”虽然不用交入会费，但是每个月要交125美元即人民币850元的月费。如果要免交月费，则需要发展下线———“只要直推3人，即可抵消入会费用，而且每天还可到账5美元”。“赛比安”团队为了“拉人头”，除了编造很多高大上的说辞外，还用尽心思通过微信朋友圈灌以“大剂量的心灵鸡汤”，宣扬“选择了赛比安，就选择了成功。”而这种金字塔层级的发展下线模式，正是传销的特征之一。其所谓的商业模式，说到底就是最底层为上层“买单”。12、能量锎（已崩盘跑路）首先我们来看看能量锎的宣传是多么牛X:QITS量子智能技术(以色列)有限公司成立于2008年3月，总部位于以色列科技研究和高等教育中心——海法市。公司专注于研究量子计算和研究成果的商业化，并提供基于量子技术的多协议网络安全的产品和服务。与此同时，公司还研究、开发和生产世界领先的量子安全通信系统和创新性的量子技术产品，可用于国防部、金融体系、政府部门、科研机构和其他高科技企业。能量锎所谓的高收益来源：1、够买锎等待锎升值 2、持有的锎多，每天系统还赠送锎（类似分红，数量没有规定） 3、用户之间互相转这个锎，可以产生能量值，能量值能产生锎（项目的亮点，炒作项目的手段）4、玩训练参数，与玩家之间互赌，预测正确一方赚赌注的一倍收益。每天预测未来价格涨跌正确可延长训练参数的分红。 5、玩模拟交易金，积分达50可以提现预测正确赚取的训练金，如果预测错了，次日系统还会赠送模拟金让你继续预测。这是一个只赢不输，稳赚不赔的期权交易。6、模拟交易金的积分达100分，将成为顶级训练师，可获得公司的智能交易席位，能获得参与公司合作伙伴（高盛、凯雷、黑石等）的一些基金项目“入场券”，包括一些高端投资，交易，套利的资格。看完上面吹的牛逼，小编震惊了，该项目属于打着区块链名义进行诈骗的资金盘传销骗局，目前该项目已经崩盘，各地会员陆续报案中，该项目圈钱百亿。13、万石集（崩盘跑路被立案）深圳万石集公司自称是分享经济模式的领航者，自设“商品网上交易平台+会员大数据+商品消费+生产企业+产业链金融”的共享经济生态圈模式。这家公司的办公地址位于深圳福田某高级写字楼里，主要业务是发行玉石资产包，让投资者认购后，放在电子商务平台上炒作。然而，最近投资者发现该平台出不了金，且公司早已人去楼空，公司疑卷款跑路。目前市面像万石集这样的所谓电商新零售平台很多（实际上都是打着互联网创新名义的诈骗平台，不会产生任何利润，满满的都是泡沫），这些平台从炒版画、炒茶叶到炒字画、炒红酒炒白酒，炒药材、炒鸡毛等，从美通天下到雅得，再到书画宝，下一个崩盘的平台是哪一个呢？让我们拭目以待。14、亮碧思亮碧思的根据地在香港，由于深圳毗邻香港，深圳是亮碧思传销的重灾区，每年都有大批深圳大学生被骗去香港加入亮碧思传销。加入亮碧思传销的受害者大多经亲朋好友、同学介绍，以前往香港考察进出口生意或从事代购为名，缴纳上千元费用与他们一同赴港。在香港期间，他们不仅需了解亮碧思出品的奶粉、红酒、精油灯产品，见到因销售亮碧思而“发达”的经销商，还不时受到上课洗脑和亲朋好友劝说。在完成三、四天以销售产品为目标的课程后，受害人被说服缴纳上万元费用成为亮碧思的经销商。以高额回馈为诱饵，向受害人推广产品、宣讲销售奖金制度，从而诱骗受害人加入，接二连三有人深陷其中……这是香港亮碧思公司组织领导传销活动的常用伎俩，该案近期被深圳福田警方破获。亮碧思传销网络的隐蔽性和欺诈性让其披上了一层神秘外衣，而使用多个代名则让人看得云里雾里，也让它有了一定的活动空间。在深入调查后，深圳福田警方重拳出击，侦破了香港亮碧思公司在内地涉嫌组织、领导传销一案，目前批准逮捕25人，其中包括亮碧思传销网络在深圳最高层级“公爵”之一的“大冬”（化名，下同），初步估算金额超过2亿元。亮碧思传销在警方的打击后，也一直在变更名称躲避查处，其中包括SPN（又名BV、APEX）、明昇（又名Francine）、THY（又名诗贝朗）以及SGB，请大家注意防范。15、绿藻积分绿藻积分打着实体+大健康产业链+商城产品+数字积分+资本上市的幌子大肆进行拉人头的活动，涉嫌传销和集资诈骗。小编想说一句，小球藻公司骗了这么多钱，就不能花点钱请个好点的ui设计师吗？我们来看看绿藻积分的奖金制度（赤裸裸的传销拉人头套路）：投资金额 1000-30000元【1000的整数倍,3个区域的投资级别】投资静态收益：每天1%-3%分红投资静态收益 6--10倍。（动静态达到6-10倍复投）激活码：100元一个/赠送双倍的消费积分。1000元—9000元 1个激活码赠送200消费积分， 6倍收益。10000元—19000元 2个激活码赠送400消费积分 8倍收益。20000元—3万 3个激活码赠送600消费积分， 10倍收益每天按照投资金额放大杠杆倍数后1‰--3‰，返利静态10%重消日封顶:投资金额数每天【假如投资30000元，日封顶30000元】动态收益1.三级分销第1代静态返利收益的25% 推荐1人拿1代第2代静态返利收益的10% 推荐3人拿2代第3代静态返利收益的15% 推荐6人拿3代2. 晋级奖【极差制晋级奖】一.社区代理: 直推8人团队20--50人无限层奖励静态收益8%二.县级代理: 直推10人团队51--100人无限层奖励静态收益12%三.市级代理: 直推12人团队101--199人无限层奖励静态收益15%3. 团队总业绩奖一.蓝宝石：直推15人，团队200人奖励团队每天静态返现无限代1%二.红宝石：直推20人，团队500人，团队产生2个蓝宝石奖励团队每天静态收益无限代2%三.绿宝石：直推20人，团队2000人，团队产生2个红宝石奖励团队每天静态收益无限代3%最新！2017年12月份前的传销资金盘名单。1、巨氧超宝。2、天香积分。3、文创币。4、永利众筹。5、汇友统筹。6、宗圣文化。7、金凤凰。8、华硒积分。9、中劵资本。10、汇赢。11、聚金缘。12、瀚海资本。13、摸金派。14、拉拉起航。15、京石园。16、一文鸡。17、幸福100。18、普金证券MPL。19、鼎润。20、泓樽付。21、TA金融。22、海陆汇。23、钱柜。24、永利皇宫。25、云尊币。26、蒲公英。27、CAR国际车城。28、鸿盛金融。29、益家人。30、BT99。31、沃野。32、贯军E购皇朝万鑫。33、寒溪。34、康图理财。35、普金证券MPL。36、SMT理财。37、19爱心。38、世通百草堂。39、维加斯理财。40、亚国际交易。41、黑石通汇。42、韦尔资本。43、炎帝生物。45、优时代。46、丰达凯来。47、爱心汇。48、万维币。49、太白盛世。50、鼎城。51、淘金农场。52、中坚诚信。53、聚富达。54、心连心。55、嗨网。56、美业币。57、国投联盟。58、口尊家园。59、大润生物。60、兴中天。61、鼎烨。62、金颐鸿达。63、星维资本。64、优狐消费网。65、G.S.R皇家豪星娱。66、SOS理财互助。67、互惠庄园。68、MINI商业街。69、华贸国际。70、哆备宝。71、瑞亿拆分。72、精准普惠证券。73、DGU迪优。74、红杉国际。75、GPL证券。76、ACL。77、国际创富。78、君联国际。79、中国易物物联网。80、宝特币。81、传家宝。82、金元宝投资。83、中券新马甲 [ FFG ]。84、TPS138云集品。85、3658商城。86、和汇网。87、新智谷。88、VIC数字货币。89、华莱黑茶。90、五行币。91、利物币。92、世界云联。93、民族资产。94、云联慧。95、维加斯。96、凯西爱。97、爱同行。98、中信天城。99、美丹马场。100、桃源传奇。101、邦富。102、飞鸽速传。103、UI。104、宝庆文化。105、深蓝积分。106、王者荣耀资金盘。107、和氏王者（和氏币）。108、MGM博彩。109、五星币。110、赚典。111、梦联。112、熊猫乐园。113、YO全球支付。114、雷达钱包。115、OGE理财。116、星路客。117、环球积分。118、迪拜美丹。119、乐享动力。120、欧亚币。121、利荣证券。122、蓝岛香柚种植园。123、金鸡下蛋游戏。124、信丰国际。125、NGA分红盘。126、大风车。127、北斗吉祥。128、SVI胜威。129、纳斯达克资本。130、善合信。131、中瑞宇成。132、众善行。133、亿盛。134、新源普惠。135、丰谷万众。136、茶鑫源。137、贝壳国际。138、汇联农场理财。139、万慈汇。140、新源普惠。141、聚富达。142、摇金果。143、韦尔资本。144、利万家。145、TZT。146、鑫诚。147、威廉。148、中云全返。149、东盟互助。150、造梦者互助。151、SKY云世纪。152、MS福袋。153、五泰国际。154、造梦者互助。155、卡莱尔。156、九樱果。157、HEG尊享汇。158、抢单网。159、世纪畅享。160、超值分享购。161、如歌财富。162、钱宝网。163、云吃货。164、老妈乐。165、麦点商城。166、中睿盛通。167、蓝天格瑞。168、珠海壹众生物科技。169、鑫圆共享经济。170、美极客。171、千城万店。172、蓝德权证。173、鲁易购。174、蚂蚁口服液。150家＂消费返利＂传销骗局名单曝光！各地已纷纷预警！消费全返基本都是拿后面的人的钱支付前面人的返利（消费全返所谓的商业模式与正常的商业规律相悖），消费全返公司多是和钱宝网一样的旁氏骗局罢了。这篇文章发布后，估计会有一堆传销疯狗过来乱喷，欢迎留言举报传销骗局，您的支持和转发，有可能会挽救一个家庭。长按上方二维码，关注小警之家中国200万警察都在关注投稿/zhaopolice(微信)xiaojingzhijia@yeah.net小警之家中国200万警察都在关注关注"],["topImageUrl","data:image/gif;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVQImWNgYGBgAAAABQABh6FO1AAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=="],["error",null]]}]}],["text","中國2018最新傳銷名單，快分享給你的朋友，如果他們正在做，那可以救他們一命！不然被抓到可是會死刑的！！\nhttps://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/Lsm-ospzKnFdfgVzL_xkeg"],["id","AWDOp1alyCdS-nWhumc1"],["createdAt","2018-01-07T03:26:01.377Z"]]}],["reply",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","AWF-eqeMhutQxxU6trmI"],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","AWF-Z5wzhutQxxU6trl5"],["name","林郁慈"],["avatarUrl","https://www.gravatar.com/avatar/edf75e915c4d677d7f4ef5ed5af94862?s=100&d=identicon&r=g"],["level",4]]}],["type","NOT_RUMOR"],["text","傳銷名單是真的，但是文章內容是 2017 年而非 2018 年，而傳銷在中國屬於違法行為"],["reference","Google 關鍵字「2017最新传销资金盘名单」\nhttps://www.google.com.tw/search?q=2017%E6%9C%80%E6%96%B0%E4%BC%A0%E9%94%80%E8%B5%84%E9%87%91%E7%9B%98%E5%90%8D%E5%8D%95&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&gws_rd=cr&dcr=0&ei=45R-WurUO4GU0QTzqor4Bg"],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","2017最新传销资金盘名单 - Google 搜尋"],["url","https://www.google.com.tw/search?q=2017%E6%9C%80%E6%96%B0%E4%BC%A0%E9%94%80%E8%B5%84%E9%87%91%E7%9B%98%E5%90%8D%E5%8D%95&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&gws_rd=cr&dcr=0&ei=45R-WurUO4GU0QTzqor4Bg"],["summary","2017最新传销资金盘名单！每次分享有可能会挽救一个家庭！-天天快报kuaibao.qq.com/s/20171229A0RFH400?refer=spider頁庫存檔轉為繁體網頁2017年12月29日 - 本文综合来源：十点风云及网络，无需授权，可随意转载 12月27日，据江苏省南京市公安局官方微博“平安南京”消息，钱宝网实际控制人张小雷因涉嫌 ...2017年12月前最新传销资金盘名单曝光（二） - 曝光中心- 反传销头条网www.fcxttw.com/news/10_792頁庫存檔轉為繁體網頁2018年1月1日 - 近些年政府加大了对传销的打击力度，传销逐渐由异地拉人头的传统传销向互联网传销进化，庞氏骗局、集资诈骗与传销犯罪不断交织，由于涉及 ...2017最新资金盘传销骗局名单出炉，醒醒吧，贪婪者！._手机网易网https://3g.163.com/news/article/CS5KTKAU9001TKAV.html頁庫存檔轉為繁體網頁2017年8月17日 - 所有做资金盘的人该清醒清醒了：80%以上的资金盘是来自美国的国际“老千”，他们是以“高收益投资理财”的诱惑力来瞄准中国相当一部分民众“不学 ...2017年最新虚拟币骗局名单｜资金盘.互助盘.股权.虚拟币.互金理财.复利 ...https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/25763593頁庫存檔轉為繁體網頁以未来货币、快速致富为名，做着传销敛财的勾当，四处招摇撞骗，祸害一方。不少受害者遭遇财产损失，遍地尸骨，一片凄惨景象。以下是最新虚拟货币理财骗局黑 ...2017最新传销资金盘名单，无数人倾家荡产！你身边肯定有人-辽宁大宸 ...www.lndcls.com/2018/xwzq_0102/318.html頁庫存檔轉為繁體網頁2017最新传销资金盘名单，无数人倾家荡产！你身边肯定有人. 作者：法律小常识. 近些年政府加大了对传销的打击力度，传销逐渐由异地拉人头的传统传销向互联网 ...央视紧急曝光！350个资金盘全是骗局，附2017最新传销组织名单-财经 ...https://m.sohu.com/n/488252951/頁庫存檔轉為繁體網頁来源：互联网热点当今社会，“傻子太多，骗子不够用”，不管你是什么身份，总有一款骗局适合你！2017最新传销组织名单(陆续发布中)：【A】Am.2017年最全资金盘、传销名单最新曝光！_中国反传销研究所_风清扬反 ...www.fanchuanxiao.net/ab/chuanxiao/2018/0505/9726.html頁庫存檔轉為繁體網頁2017年最全资金盘、传销名单最新曝光！时间:2018-05-05 23:50来源:网络整理作者:风清扬反传销网点击: 次. 前有“巴铁项目”，后有IGOFX。只不过，“巴铁”骗局 ...央视紧急曝光！350个资金盘全是骗局，最新传销组织名单公布！_搜狐 ...www.sohu.com › 其它頁庫存檔轉為繁體網頁2017年4月25日 - 时政丨民生丨文化有深度丨有思想丨有节操...... 回复下列序号即可查看更多精彩内容： [ 1 ]阅后即焚的雾霾文章--柴静《穹顶之下》 [11]央视女记者柴 ...最新传销组织名单公布！这350个资金盘全是骗局！_搜狐其它_搜狐网www.sohu.com › 其它頁庫存檔轉為繁體網頁2017年2月7日 - 央视紧急曝光！350个资金盘全是骗局，最新传销组织名单公布！以下视频为中央电视台CCTV-2财经报道：看完视频，大家不妨一起来看看上榜的 ...2017年最新【快餐资金盘骗局名单】，悟空整理爆料。-悟空测评 - 悟空看盘https://www.wukong777.com/post/89.html頁庫存檔轉為繁體網頁骗局：ETR英泰类型：数字积分特征：非法集资、传销洗脑星级危害等级... ... 2017年最新【快餐资金盘骗局名单】，悟空整理爆料。 04月17日,2017 3656次."],["topImageUrl","https://www.google.com.tw/logos/doodles/2018/googles-20th-birthday-6342583134453760.7-s.png"],["error",null]]}]}],["createdAt","2018-02-10T06:50:22.992Z"]]}]]},{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["article",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["replyCount",1],["references",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["type","LINE"]]}]}],["replyRequestCount",1],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","j4S8C_AO7U9UgO3jfO7w-_TCIO4Xtij_63hrFiTOAIF-wiO0o"],["name","忠誠的✖長濱✖法蘭克林"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",0]]}],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","Universal and reusable virus deactivation system for respiratory protection"],["url","https://www.nature.com/articles/srep39956#Sec8"],["summary","AbstractAerosolized pathogens are a leading cause of respiratory infection and transmission. Currently used protective measures pose potential risk of primary/secondary infection and transmission. Here, we report the development of a universal, reusable virus deactivation system by functionalization of the main fibrous filtration unit of surgical mask with sodium chloride salt. The salt coating on the fiber surface dissolves upon exposure to virus aerosols and recrystallizes during drying, destroying the pathogens. When tested with tightly sealed sides, salt-coated filters showed remarkably higher filtration efficiency than conventional mask filtration layer, and 100% survival rate was observed in mice infected with virus penetrated through salt-coated filters. Viruses captured on salt-coated filters exhibited rapid infectivity loss compared to gradual decrease on bare filters. Salt-coated filters proved highly effective in deactivating influenza viruses regardless of subtypes and following storage in harsh environmental conditions. Our results can be applied in obtaining a broad-spectrum, airborne pathogen prevention device in preparation for epidemic and pandemic of respiratory diseases.\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n IntroductionAerosols take a prominent role in airborne transmission of respiratory diseases. Droplets with aerodynamic size (da) < 10 μm and 10 < da < 100 μm are known to infect the alveolar regions and upper respiratory tract, respectively1,2. Notably, aerosols can also be a route of infection in diseases that, contrary to for instance influenza, do not specifically target the respiratory tract, as it could be the case of Ebola virus3. While vaccination can greatly reduce morbidity and mortality, during a pandemic or epidemic new vaccines matching the specific strain would be available, at the earliest, six months after the initial outbreak. Additionally, following development of an effective viral vaccine, several potential problems would remain, such as limited supply due to insufficient production capacity and time-consuming manufacturing processes. As a result, individuals close to the point of an outbreak would be in imminent danger of exposure to infectious diseases during the non-vaccine period. In the absence of vaccination, respirators and masks can be worn to prevent transmission of airborne pathogenic aerosols and control diseases, such as influenza4.The main alternative, the N95 respirator, requires training prior to use, must be expertly fitted to address the risk of faceseal leakage at the face-mask interface, and must be disposed of as biohazard5. Due to these factors, the use of N95 respirators on a large scale is impractical and expensive during an epidemic or pandemic. Past experiences of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), H1N1 swine flu in 2009, and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) indicate that surgical masks have been most widely adopted by the public as personal protective measure, despite controversy on their effectiveness6,7,8,9. Currently, among other factors, filtration in respirators and masks depends on filter characteristics, including fiber diameter, packing density, charge of fibers and filter thickness, as well as particle properties, such as diameter, density and velocity10,11,12,13,14. However, in the lack of a system to deactivate the collected pathogens, safety concerns naturally arise about secondary infection and contamination from virus-laden filter media during utilization and disposal. Furthermore, since re-sterilization is not possible without causing damage, respirators and masks are recommended for single use only9,15,16. Scientific efforts have been focused on treatment of filters with materials possessing well-known antimicrobial properties, such as iodine, chlorine and metals17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25, although with limited effectiveness against virus aerosols26,27,28. Therefore, a key challenge is the development of an easy-to-use, universal virus negation system, which is reusable without reprocessing and capable of deactivating pathogens, thereby reducing potential risk of secondary infection and transmission.Here, we report a simple but efficient virus inactivation system exploiting the naturally occurring salt recrystallization. Our strategy is to modify the surface of the fibrous filtration layer within masks with a continuous salt film for virus deactivation via two successive processes: i) salt is locally dissolved by the viral aerosols and ii) supersaturation is followed by evaporation-induced salt recrystallization. Consequently, viruses are exposed to increasingly higher concentrations of saline solution during drying and physically damaged by recrystallization.ResultsPreparation and characterization of salt-functionalized filtersTo demonstrate the concept of virus deactivation system based on salt recrystallization, the middle layer of three-ply surgical mask, polypropylene (PP) microfiber filter, was coated with NaCl salt as an active virus negation unit (see Supplementary Fig. S1 for bare PP filter). The coating formulations contained surfactant to enhance wetting of saline solution on the surface of hydrophobic PP fibers. Bare PP filters (abbreviated as Filterbare) were pre-wet to contain about 600 μL of coating solution (abbreviated as Filterwet). The amount of NaCl salt (Wsalt in mg/cm2) coated on the filter per unit area, considering that the filters thickness is constant, was easily controlled by changing the coating solution volume (Vsalt in μL) during drying of pre-wet filter (radius: 3 cm, Wsalt = 3.011 + 0.013 × Vsat, n = 7) (Fig. S2). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) mapping analysis showed the formation of homogeneous NaCl coating during drying, as also confirmed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) (Fig. 1a,b and Supplementary Fig. S3). Both the formation of NaCl coating on PP fibers and presence of surfactant in the coating formulation appeared to alter the filter surface properties from hydrophobic (bare filter; contact angle, θc = 133.0 ± 4.7°) to completely hydrophilic (salt-coated filter; θc ~ 0°, n = 10) (Fig. 1c and Supplementary Fig. S4). Hydrophilic nature of salt coating can greatly improve adhesion of viral aerosols to PP fibers compared to Filterbare, as seen in Raman microscope images (Fig. 1d and Supplementary Fig. S5).Figure 1: Mask with salt-coated filter for prevention and deactivation of airborne pathogens.(a) SEM image of Filterwet+600μL (top left) and EDX mapping images of Na (red), Cl (green), and NaCl (combination of Na and Cl mapping images), showing the formation of NaCl coating, as also confirmed by XRD spectra (b) of Filterbare, Filterwet, Filterwet+100μL, Filterwet+300μL, Filterwet+600μL, Filterwet+900μL and Filterwet+1200μL (labelled as Bare, wet, wet+100 μL, wet+300 μL, wet+600 μL, wet+900 μL and wet+1200 μL, respectively; miller indices corresponding to NaCl crystal are shown at the top of XRD spectra for each position). (c) Optical microscope images for contact angle measurements using 3 μL DI water droplets on (i) Filterbare and (ii) Filterwet+600μL (n = 10). (d) Microscope images of aerosol on (i) Filterbare and (ii) Filterwet+600μL (n = 10).Filtration efficiency against viral aerosols and protective efficacy in vivoFiltration efficiency of salt-coated filters was tested against aerosols with volumetric mean diameter (VMD) of 2.5–4 μm containing H1N1 pandemic influenza virus (A/California/04/2009, abbreviated as CA/09) at different pressure conditions (see Fig. 2a for transmission electron microscope (TEM) image of H1N1 virus). Interestingly, as shown in Fig. 2b, Filterbare did not exhibit any significant level of resistance against penetration of virus under our experimental conditions (i.e., 0% filtration efficiency). Conversely, salt-coated filters showed substantially increasing filtration efficiency with pressure and amount of coated salt. In particular, in the case of Filterwet+600μL, filtration efficiency varied from 43 to 70%, with increasing pressure from 3 to 17 kPa, and Filterwet+1200μL exhibited persistent, high-level efficiency (~85%) (one-way ANOVA, P = 0.85).Figure 2: Filtration efficiency of salt-coated filters.(a) TEM image of CA/09 H1N1 influenza virus. (b) Pressure-dependent filtration efficiency (n = 8–10, mean ± standard deviation (SD)). (c–f) Effects of filtration efficiency on protective efficacy in vivo. Body weight change of mice after infection with the dosages of penetrated virus (n = 12, mean ± SD) (c), survival rates (mean; 100% means that all mice in the group survived as penetrated dosages were lower than lethal dose) (d), lung virus titers (n = 4, mean ± SD) (e), and lung inflammatory cytokine (interferon-γ (IFN-γ)) assay (n = 11, mean ± SD) (f). Legends: filters are labelled as in Fig. 1b.To probe the effects of filtration efficiency on protective efficacy, in vivo experiments were performed using mice intranasally (IN) infected with penetrated dosages of H1N1 virus under breathing pressure (~10 kPa)29. As shown in Fig. 2c, similarly to negative control groups (mice infected with lethal dose of virus stock and aerosolized virus), mice exposed to a dose penetrated through the bare filter showed rapid body weight loss, followed by death within 10 days after infection, in good agreement with the observed 0% filtration efficiency (Fig. 2b). In contrast, mice groups exposed to virus derived from salt-coated filters resulted in 100% survival rate (Fig. 2d). Furthermore, lungs of mice from negative control groups exhibited severe lung infection 4 days after challenge (Fig. 2e). Conversely, mice groups exposed to virus derived from salt-coated filters showed significantly lower levels of lung viral titers (t-test, P < 0.005). This is consistent with lower levels of inflammatory cytokines, interferon-γ (IFN-γ), from salt-coated filter groups compared to negative control and bare filter groups (t-test, P < 0.001) (Fig. 2f).Deactivation of virus on salt-functionalized filtersInfluenza virus stability tests were performed to investigate the effects of salt coating. The same amount of recovered viruses from the PP fibers was used, and, in the case of bare filters, viral aerosols exposure was conducted in the absence of pressure due to 100% penetration of viral aerosols. Unlike bare filters (Fig. S6a(i)), formation of micron-sized NaCl phase represents a typical feature of salt-coated filters due to recrystallization of NaCl salt, following local dissolution upon aerosols exposure (SEM images in Fig. S6a, ii to iv, and EDX mapping in Fig. S6b). In contrast to 8% HA activity loss of virus adsorbed onto Filterbare, salt-coated filters exhibited almost complete HA activity loss within 5 min of incubation (Fig. 3a). Such dramatic virus destabilization on salt-coated filters is further supported by negligible levels of viral titers compared to Filterbare with incubation time (t-test, P < 0.001) (Fig. 3b). It is also noted that virus titers exhibited significant decrease with increase of incubation time and amount of coated salt (ANOVA general linear model, P < 0.001). TEM analysis showed that influenza virus on Filterbare experiences morphological change into non-spherical shape during aerosol drying (Fig. 3c(i)). Notably, influenza virus was severely damaged on salt-coated filters even at 5 min of incubation (Fig. 3c(ii)). From microscopic analysis, aerosol drying time was about 3 min, indicating that destruction of virus observed at 5 min is associated with drying-induced salt crystallization. Physical damage of virus due to crystallization was similarly reported as a major destabilizing factor of inactivated influenza virus30,31. Lower levels of native fluorescence and nile red fluorescence from virus recovered from salt-coated filters accounted for more severe conformational change of antigenic proteins and destabilization of viral envelope, respectively, consistent with TEM analysis (t-test, P < 0.001) (Fig. 3d). In parallel, we investigated the separate effect of salt concentration increase on virus stability during the aerosol drying process, irrespective of crystal growth. As displayed in Supplementary Fig. S7, the materials collected in suspension from Filterwet+600μL induced visible morphological transformation of the virus (Supplementary Fig. S7b) compared to suspension of Filterbare (Supplementary Fig. S7a). This can be attributed to the high salt/surfactant concentration and osmotic pressure, which have been well-known to destabilize proteins and viruses31,32,33. Therefore, the marked virus destabilization on salt-coated PP fibers can be explained by the combined effects of salt concentration increase during drying and evaporation-induced salt crystallization.Figure 3: Inactivation of virus adsorbed on salt-coated filters.(a,b) HA activity (a) and virus titer (b) displaying the effects of incubation time on the remaining activity of virus (n = 4–8, mean ± SD). (c) TEM images of viruses reconstituted, after incubation for 5 and 60 min, from (i) Filterbare and (ii) Filterwet+600μL. (d) Native fluorescence/nile red fluorescence of viruses incubated for 60 min (n = 12, mean ± SD). (e,f) Body weight change of mice after infection with virus recovered from filters after incubation for 60 min (n = 12, mean ± SD) (e), and lung virus titers (n = 6, mean ± SD) (f). Asterisk (*): below detection limit. Legends: filters are labelled as in Fig. 1b.To verify in vitro virus stability on the filters, an in vivo study was performed by infecting mice with virus incubated for 60 min on PP filters. As shown in Fig. 3e, Filterbare group exhibited 5% body weight loss at day 9 post-infection, reaching a body weight lower than that of salt-coated filter groups by 10–15%. Thus, significantly higher lung virus titers in the negative control group were observed in contrast to no detectable titers in the salt-coated filter groups (Fig. 3f).Strain-nonspecific virus deactivation and effects of storage under harsh environmental conditions on salt coating stabilityBroad-spectrum protection of salt-coated filters against multiple subtypes of viral aerosols was evaluated by investigating both lethal infectivity by penetrated virus in vivo and infectivity by virus collected on filters during filtration in vitro using A/Puerto Rico/08/1934 (PR/34 H1N1) and A/Vietnam/1203/2004 (VN/04 H5N1). Similarly to CA/09 H1N1, 100% of mice survived viral infection (PR/34 and VN/04), with no evidence of weight loss, due to higher filtration efficiency of salt-coated filter than that of bare filter (Fig. 4a). This is supported by no significant level of viral titer in the lung. In addition, as shown in Fig. 4b, salt-coated PP filters destroyed adsorbed influenza viruses irrespective of both subtypes and amount of coated salts.Figure 4: Strain- and environment-dependent performance of salt-coated filters.(a) Body weight change of mice infected with penetrated PR/34 H1N1 and VN/04 H5N1 viruses through Filterwet+600μL (n = 12, mean ± SD). (b) Virus titers of recovered viruses from bare and salt-coated filters (n = 4, mean ± SD; data for Filterwet, Filterwet+600μL and Filterwet+1200μL are overlapped). (c,d) Body weight change (c) and survival rate (d) of mice infected with dosage of penetrated virus through Filterwet+600μL before and after exposure to harsh environmental conditions (37 °C and 70% RH) for 1 day (filled square and open square overlap in (d)). (e) EDX mapping image of NaCl-coated Filterwet+600μL after incubation for 15 days at 37 °C and 70% RH (combination of Na (red) and Cl (green) mapping images). (f) XRD spectra of Filterwet+600μL before and after incubation at 37 °C 70% for 1 day and 15 days. Legends: filters are labelled as in Fig. 1b.The stability of salt coating on PP fibers was tested under harsh environmental conditions. Incubation at 37 °C and 70% relative humidity (RH) for 1 day did not cause any significant difference in filtration efficiency (t-test, P = 0.718) (Supplementary Fig. S8). As a result, all mice infected with dosage of penetrated virus through the filter stored at high temperature and RH displayed 100% survival with 7% of body weight loss (Fig. 4c,d). Even after 15 days of incubation, salts remained to coat PP fibers (Fig. 4e, and Supplementary Fig. S9a,b), despite change in grain orientation due to recrystallization (Fig. 4f, and Supplementary Fig. S10a,b).DiscussionDevelopment of a universally applicable, low-cost, and efficient mechanism for virus negation is regarded as a major challenge in public health against general airborne biological threats. This led us to propose a new concept of personal/public preventive and control measures using salt-recrystallization against pathogenic aerosols based on two hypotheses. The salt-coating can enhance adsorption of virus on the filter fibers and inactivate virus by the increase of osmotic pressure followed by the crystallization of salts. As shown in Fig. 2b, salt-coated filters exhibited significantly higher levels of filtration efficiency than bare filters. Notably, the bacterial filtration efficiency (BFE) reported by the mask manufacturer is 99%. The different value of filtration efficiency for bare filters obtained under our experimental conditions may be partially due to the use of aerosols with different biological origins. The FDA-recognized ASTM F2101 – 14 standard for evaluation of BFE exposes surgical masks to Staphylococcus aureus aerosols, by employing S. aureus ATCC 653834, which has an average diameter of about 1 μm. In this study, filtration efficiency was calculated following exposure of bare and salt-coated filters to influenza virus, which exhibits a smaller diameter than that of S. aureus by one order of magnitude. Additionally, whereas during BFE evaluation all three layers of surgical masks are used, in this work filtration efficiency refers to mask filters (middle layer). It is worth noting that the conditions for BFE standard evaluation (such as flow rate and time of application of flow) do not coincide with the experimental procedure we used for measurement of the filtration efficiency, which may further contribute to the different result. The enhanced filtration efficiency of salt-coated filters against influenza virus aerosols as compared to bare filters can be explained by the observed wetting of aerosols, favoring greater adhesion to salt-coated filters. Furthermore, the significant improvement in filtration efficiency resulted in complete protection of mice against lethal influenza aerosols, which demonstrates the high level of protection provided by salt-coated filters, outperforming currently used bare filters.Rapid loss of HA activity and viral infectivity on salt-coated filters can be explained by physical destruction of virus during recrystallization of coated salts. When the salt-coated filter is exposed to virus aerosols, salt crystals below the aerosol droplet dissolve to increase osmotic pressure to virus. Due to evaporation, the salt concentration of the droplet significantly increases and reaches the solubility limit, leading to recrystallization of salt. As a consequence, virus particles are exposed to increasing osmotic pressure during the drying process and are physically damaged by crystallization. As shown in Fig. 3e,f, the superior advantage of physically destroying the virus adsorbed to the salt-coated PP filters through natural salt crystallization process was further confirmed in vivo. According to previous reports, hyperosmotic stress (>541 mOsm) and crystallization induce membrane perturbation with irreversible deformation of the viral envelope and structural virus damage, respectively, resulting in infectivity loss of virus30,31. Therefore, our data support that the extensive level of infectivity loss associated with a salt recrystallization process caused by physical contact between virus aerosols and salt coating can be used in developing virus negation systems that are reusable without reprocessing.Similarly to CA/09 H1N1 aerosols, increased protection in vivo due to higher filtration efficiency of salt-coated filters compared to bare filters and deactivation of virus on salt-coated filters were observed following exposure to PR/34 H1N1 and VN/04 H5N1 (Fig. 4a,b). This suggests that salt-coated filters prevent virus penetration and destroy virus attached to the filter in a non-specific way. Furthermore, the performance of salt-coated filters was not degraded by storage at 37 °C and 70% RH, demonstrating that salt recrystallization-based filters can ensure protection even under harsh environmental conditions. Notably, for demonstration of the concept of salt-recrystallization based virus deactivation system, NaCl salt was used, which has a critical RH of 75% at 30 °C35. However, salts with higher critical RH can be easily used, such as ammonium sulfate, potassium chloride and potassium sulfate, which have critical RH of 80%, 84% and 96.3% at 30 °C, respectively35. This suggests that salt-coated filters may be developed for specific environmental conditions.In conclusion, we demonstrated that the developed salt-recrystallization based filtration system provides high filtration efficiency and successfully deactivates multiple subtypes of adsorbed viruses. Moreover, we have shown that stability of the salt coating is not compromised by high temperature and humidity, which suggests safe use and long-term storage/reuse at such environmental conditions. Although our tests are based on exposure to different types of influenza virus, the significance of these results for personal and public protective measures may be generally extended to enveloped respiratory viruses where infection and transmission can occur by aerosol. Our salt-coated filter unit can promise the development of long-term stable, versatile airborne pathogen negation system, without safety concerns. In fact, the destruction mechanism of viruses solely depends on the simple, yet robust naturally occurring salt recrystallization process, combining the destabilizing effects of salt crystal growth and concentration increase during drying of aerosols. This idea can be easily applied to a wide range of existing technologies to obtain low-cost, universal personal and public means of protection against airborne pathogens, such as masks and air filters in hospitals. Therefore, we believe that salt-recrystallization based virus deactivation system can contribute to global health by providing a more reliable means of preventing transmission and infection of pandemic or epidemic diseases and bioterrorism.MethodsBare and salt-coated filter samples preparationThe commercial surgical masks had a three-ply structure. The middle layer is the filter media, whereas the inner and outer layers provide support and protect the filter against wear and tear. The metal nose clips and elastic ear loops were removed and circular samples (radius: 3 cm) were cut from the masks. The PP filters (middle layer) were isolated by removing the inner and outer protective layers (bare filters, Filterbare). The coating solution was prepared by dissolving sodium chloride (NaCl; Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO) in filtered DI water (0.22 μm pore size; Corning, Tewksbury, MA) under stirring at 400 rpm and 90 °C, followed by the addition of Tween 20 (Fisher Scientific) to a final concentration of 29.03 w/v% of NaCl and 1 v/v% of Tween 20. To obtain the salt-coated filters, the mask bare PP filters were pre-wet to contain approximately 600 μL of coating solution by incubating overnight at room temperature. Any remaining dry areas were removed by applying gentle strokes with tweezers to the filters while immersed in the coating solution. Subsequently, the filters were deposited in the desired volume of coating solution (0, 100, 300, 600, 900 and 1200 μL, of which corresponding membranes are abbreviated as Filterwet, Filterwet+100μL, Filterwet+300μL, Filterwet+600μL, Filterwet+900μL, and Filterwet+1200μL, respectively) on petri dishes (60 × 15 mm; Fisher Scientific) to control the amount of NaCl per unit area and dried in an oven (Isotemp Incubator, Fisher Scientific) at 37 °C for 1 day.Influenza virus preparationInfluenza viruses A/California/04/2009 (CA/09, H1N1), A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (PR/34, H1N1) and A/Vietnam/1203/2004 (VN/04, H5N1) were grown in 10-day old embryonated hen eggs, in which H5N1 virus was derived by reverse genetics from HPAI A/Vietnam/1203/200436. Influenza viruses were purified from allantoic fluid using discontinuous sucrose gradient (15%, 30% and 60%) layers following the previously reported procedure37.Aerosols exposure to filtersFor experiments involving aerosols exposure, an aerosol chamber (L × W × H = 145 × 145 × 150 mm; Emka Inc., Middletown, PA) was used (Fig. S11). It has a connection to the vacuum line and a circular aperture in the top wall (diameter: 22 mm) to exactly accommodate the cylindrical part (diameter: 20 mm, height; 20 mm) of the nebulizer unit that is below the aerosol generator (Aeroneb Lab Nebulizer System; Aerogen, Galway, Ireland). Bleach was used as trap between the chamber and the vacuum pump (Welch 2522C-10, 22 L/min; Niles, IL). The filters were placed on top of the chamber aperture and the nebulizer unit was inserted, ensuring the tight seal of the filters against the side of the aperture. 5 μL of virus stock were added to the nebulizer unit, aerosols (VMD 2.5–4 μm from manufacturer specifications) were generated for 30 sec and subsequently the desired vacuum level (3, 10 or 17 kPa) was applied, by manual control, three times in 1 sec cycles. Notably, in the case of bare filters, pressure was only applied for filtration efficiency tests.For all assays and analysis, suspensions of the filters were prepared as follows, unless otherwise indicated. To reconstitute virus adsorbed onto filters, virus-laden filters were immersed in 400 μL of sterilized DI water for about 5 min, and then removed after vortexing from the suspension. The virus suspension was centrifuged at 19,800 g and 4 °C for 10 min (Centrifuge 5810 R, Eppendorf, Hauppauge, NY), followed by resuspension of pellets in 70 μL of DI water to eliminate any interference from materials in supernatant during assays.Filtration efficiency testsThe filters were exposed to the virus aerosols at 3, 10 and 17 kPa and suspensions of the filters were obtained, as described above. The filtration efficiency was calculated as the ratio of the amount of virus (i.e., total proteins measured from the virus) reconstituted from the filter to that from the virus in the exposure aerosols. The concentration of virus in aerosols was determined by generating viral aerosols into a 15 mL centrifuge tube, containing 1 mL of DI water. After vortexing, virus concentrations (i.e., total protein concentration) were measured with bicinchoninic acid assay (BCA protein assay kit; Thermo Fischer scientific, Waltham, IL) with bovine serum albumin as a standard. In the case of virus reconstituted from salt-coated filters, virus-laden filter suspension was replaced with DI water prior to BCA assay.In vivo infection testsLethal infectivity of influenza viruses (CA/09 H1N1) was examined in 8 week old female inbred BALB/c mice (Nara Biotech; Seoul, Korea) by using the intranasal route. For bare and salt-coated filters, 12 mice per group were infected with individual penetration dosage of influenza virus through each filter. The penetration dosage of the virus through the filters (Filterbare, Filterwet, Filterwet+600μL, and Filterwet+1200μL) was calculated from the filtration efficiency at 10 kPa (near breathing pressure) using the relationship: penetration dosage = virus dosage in lethal aerosol × penetration efficiency (%)/100, where penetration efficiency (%) = 100 − filtration efficiency (%). To examine the effects of the aerosolization process on the viral infectivity change, two mice groups were infected with a lethal dose of virus before and after aerosol formation, which served as negative control groups. Body weight changes and survival rate of mice were monitored daily for 15 days. Mice with body weight loss greater than 25% were euthanized. All animal protocols were approved by the Kyung Hee University (KHU) Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). All animal experiments and husbandry involved in this work were conducted under the approved protocols and guidelines of KHU IACUC. KHU IACUC operates under National Veterinary Research and Quarantine Service (NVRQS), and animal welfare law and regulations of the WOAH-OIE (World organization for animal health).To test strain-dependent lethal infection behavior, mice (12 per group) were infected with the penetrated dosage of viral aerosols (PR/34 H1N1 and VN/04 H5N1 viruses) through Filterwet+600μL at 10 kPa. Time-dependent body weight change was monitored in the same manner described above.Lung viral titer and lung inflammatory cytokine assays after infectionOn day 4 after infection 6 mice of each group were sacrificed for the collection of lung samples. Lung virus titers were measured on six-well plates containing confluent MDCK cell monolayers. Inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ) were determined using BD OptEIA mouse IFN-γ ELISA kit (BD Biosciences, San Jose, CA) following the manufacturer’s procedure.Test of viral infectivity change on filtersTo investigate the effects of salt-coating on viral infectivity loss, lethal influenza aerosols were exposed to four different types of filters (Filterbare, Filterwet, Filterwet+600μL, and Filterwet+1200μL). Since Filterbare exhibited almost complete penetration upon pressure application, aerosols were exposed to the bare filter in the absence of pressure and samples were carefully handled to prevent mechanical agitation. To measure time-dependent stability change of virus, virus-laden filters were incubated at ambient conditions for 0, 5, 15, and 60 min after aerosol exposure, and suspended in DI water to reconstitute virus at each time point. In vitro stability of virus was characterized by measuring hemagglutinin activity (HA) and virus titers at the same concentration as lethal dose30. The conformational stability of antigenic proteins was characterized by measuring intrinsic fluorescence using 0.1 mg/mL of virus suspension38. To investigate morphological change of virus, lipid stability of viral wall was characterized by nile red fluorescence (Sigma Aldrich), a fluorescent lipid stain, following manufacturer’s protocol39. A decrease in fluorescence intensity can be used to examine the level of disintegration of the virus. Both intrinsic and nile red fluorescence were measured by using a fluorimeter (LB 50B; PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA). Intensity changes of fluorescent spectra were compared relative to those of a control from virus stock.To test infectivity difference observed from in vitro findings, in vivo study was performed for the virus reconstituted from the filters (Filterbare, Filterwet, Filterwet+600μL, and Filterwet+1200μL) after incubation for 60 min at RT (aerosol exposure at 10 kPa, except for Filterbare). 12 mice per group were infected with a lethal dose of virus collected from each type of filter. Body weight change and lung virus titers were measured as described above.Effects of environmental conditions on the performance of salt-coated filterSalt-coated filters (Filterwet, Filterwet+600μL, and Filterwet+1200μL) were stored at 37 °C, 70% RH in an incubator (Maru Max; Rcom, Gyeonggi-do, South Korea) for 15 days. Every day, the filters were collected and incubated at ambient conditions for 5 min. At 1-day incubation, filtration efficiency was measured at 10 kPa from Filterwet+600μL, followed by in vivo infection test. Lethal infectivity between two different filter groups (before and after incubation at 37 °C, 70% RH) was compared by measuring body weight change and survival rate of mice after exposure to lethal CA/09 H1N1 aerosols. XRD analysis was performed to salt-coated filters incubated for 1 and 15 days, and SEM/EDX mapping analysis for 15-day incubated samples.Contact angle measurements and imaging of aerosolsThe bare and salt-coated filters were fixed with carbon tape (Ted Pella, Inc., Redding, CA) to a metal, flat substrate and 3 μL of DI water were added on the surface of the filters. The contact angles were measured from images collected with an optical microscope (10× lens, Motic SMZ-140; Motic, Richmond, Canada) at RT. Images of aerosols on filter fibers were obtained using a dispersive Raman microscope (Nicolet Almega XR; Fisher Scientific).Aerosol drying time on filtersThe bare and salt-coated filters were fixed with carbon tape to a metal, flat substrate and exposed to aerosols generated from 5 μL of Sulforhodamine B Dye solution (1 mM, Sigma-Aldrich). Aerosol drying time was determined with timer by observation with optical microscope.Electron microscopy analysisFor virus stability tests, bare and salt-coated filters were exposed to CA/09 H1N1 aerosols and, after 5 and 60 min incubation, virus was recovered by suspension of the filters, as described above. To study the effects of the coating formulation during aerosol drying independently from crystal growth, bare and salt-coated filters were immersed in DI water and removed after 60 min. Subsequently, virus was incubated in the obtained suspension for 60 min. Additionally, the virus suspension was centrifuged at 19,800 g and 4 °C for 10 min to collect the samples and suspend them in DI water. For TEM analysis (200 kV, JEOL JEM 2100; JEOL, Peabody, MA), samples were deposited on copper grid (Electron Microscopy Sciences, Hatfield, PA) and negatively stained with solution comprised of phosphotungstic acid hydrate (1.5 w/v%, pH = 7.0; Sigma-Aldrich, Oakville, Canada).To identify the morphology of salt-coated filters and recrystallized salts, SEM/EDX analysis was performed for bare and salt-coated filters after coating with 10 nm thick gold layer. Scanning electron microscopy analysis (Hitachi S-3000N; Hitachi, Toronto, Canada) was operated in secondary electron mode at 20 kV and EDX analysis was obtained with EDX detector (Oxford Instruments, Concord, MA).XRD analysisTo confirm the formation of crystalline NaCl coating during drying process and its stability during storage at 37 °C and 70% RH, XRD analysis (BRU-1098; Bruker, Billerica, MA) was performed at different coating conditions. Filters (1 × 1 cm) were mounted on a slide glass for XRD analysis (θ–2θ mode) using a CuKα radiation.Statistical analysisTo compare multiple conditions, Student’s t-test, One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and general linear model were used (Minitab release 14; Minitab, State College, PA). P value of less than 0.05 was considered to be significant.Additional InformationHow to cite this article: Quan, F.-S. et al. Universal and reusable virus deactivation system for respiratory protection. Sci. 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Cell Biol. 100, 965–973 (1985).Download referencesAcknowledgementsThis research was financially supported by startup funds from University of Alberta (H.J.C.), and grants from National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) (NRF-2014R1A2A2A01004899) and Ministry of Health & Welfare, Republic of Korea (HI15C2928).Author informationAuthor notesFu-Shi Quan and Ilaria Rubino: These authors contributed equally to this work.AffiliationsDepartment of Medical Zoology, Kyung Hee University School of Medicine, Seoul, 130-701, KoreaFu-Shi QuanDepartment of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, CanadaIlaria Rubino, Brendan Koch & Hyo-Jick ChoiDepartment of Biomedical Science, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 130-701, KoreaSu-Hwa LeeAuthorsSearch for Fu-Shi Quan in:Search for Ilaria Rubino in:Search for Su-Hwa Lee in:Search for Brendan Koch in:Search for Hyo-Jick Choi in:ContributionsH.J.C. conceived and designed the experiments. F.S.Q., I.R., S.H.L., B.K., and H.J.C. performed the experiments. F.S.Q., I.R., S.H.L., B.K., and H.J.C. analyzed the data. I.R. and H.J.C. wrote the manuscript. F.S.Q. and B.K. edited the manuscript.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to\n Hyo-Jick Choi.Ethics declarations\n \n Competing interests\n The authors declare no competing financial interests.\n \n Supplementary informationRights and permissionsThis work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if the material is not included under the Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/Reprints and PermissionsAbout this articleCite this articleQuan, F., Rubino, I., Lee, S. et al. Universal and reusable virus deactivation system for respiratory protection.\n Sci Rep 7, 39956 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep39956Download citationReceived: 04 August 2016Accepted: 30 November 2016Published: 04 January 2017DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep39956\n\n \n \n \n Further reading\n \n \n \n \n \n \n Survival of Microorganisms on Nonwovens Used for the Construction of Filtering Facepiece Respirators\n \n \n \n \n Katarzyna Majchrzycka, Małgorzata Okrasa, Justyna Szulc, Anita Jachowicz[…] & Beata Gutarowska- Show fewer authors\n \n \n International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health\n (2019)\n \n \n \n \n \n \n Respiratory Protection against Pandemic and Epidemic Diseases\n \n \n \n \n Ilaria Rubino & Hyo-Jick Choi\n \n \n Trends in Biotechnology\n (2017)\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n CommentsBy submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines. If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate."],["topImageUrl",null],["error",null]]}]}],["text","WIKILINK\n最新科技資訊\n\n \n口罩能否反復使用？浸鹽水後可100%讓H1N1病毒滅活，但對其他病毒需謹慎 | 《科學報告》期刊\nFebruary 5, 2020 admin\n曉查發自凹非寺 \n量子位報道 | 公眾號 QbitAI\n一場新冠肺炎讓中國的口罩嚴重告急。\n\n每齣一次門就要廢掉一個口罩，傢裏的口罩即將用完，藥店和網上都買不到，真是急死人瞭。\n\n彆怕，早在2016年，來自韓國慶熙大學的研究者就發現，口罩隻需用普通食鹽水處理後，就具有瞭一定的殺滅病毒能力，至少對2009年爆發的H1N1流感病毒有效。\n\n他們將處理後的口罩來過濾充滿H1N1病毒的空氣，然後再給小白鼠呼吸，結果發現小鼠的存活率達到瞭100%。\n\n\n\n\n \n空氣中的病毒濃度達到瞭緻死量。作為對照，如果使用普通醫用口罩過濾，小白鼠在4天後就會齣現嚴重的肺炎，10天後全部死亡。\n\n這篇文章發錶在2017年1月Nature旗下的Scientific Reports期刊上。\n\n\n\n△實驗中用到的過濾裝置\n早在3年前，該文章就預測瞭口罩短缺的可能性。\n\n作者在開頭說，在疫病大流行時期，生産能力不足和製造過程耗時，會導緻口罩供應有限。\n\nN95口罩雖然可以過濾空氣中形成的病毒氣溶膠，但是在嚴重的疫情麵前，大規模使用N95口罩是不切實際的，而且價格昂貴。\n\n過去的SARS、H1N1、MERS都錶明，醫用外科口罩是被公眾最廣泛采用的個人防護措施，盡管人們對它的效果存在爭議。\n\n因此需要開發一種通用、低成本且有效的防護病毒機製，最好能用在普通醫用口罩上。\n\n\n\n\n\n\n研究人員配置瞭濃度29.03 w/v%的氯化鈉溶液，並在其中加入瞭一些Tween 20錶麵活性劑，將口罩浸潤，然後在37℃的環境下乾燥一天。\n\n文章指齣，經過這種方法處理後的口罩無需再次處理即可重復使用。最終實驗發現，塗有氯化鈉的口罩上的病毒在5分鍾後就失去瞭活性。\n\n\n\n\n\n\n從顯微鏡分析來看，病毒氣溶膠乾燥時間約為3分鍾，錶明在5分鍾時觀察到的病毒破壞與乾燥引起的鹽結晶有關。\n\n作者推測，可能是帶有水分的病毒被吸附在口罩錶麵，濕潤後又重結晶的鹽破壞瞭病毒的結構。\n\n既然對H1N1病毒，自然就有網友很好奇，這種處理方法是否也對新型冠狀病毒有效。\n\n一些網友對此提齣瞭質疑，認為鹽結晶可能減小瞭口罩的通氣量，而且實驗隻對H1N1病毒進行瞭驗證，是否實用還有待商榷。\n\n所以在未經實驗驗證的情況下，請不要用這種方法來過濾新型冠狀病毒。口罩還是要保證一用一換，切不可自行處理後就重復使用，否則仍有被感染的風險。\n\n論文地址：\nhttps://www.nature.com/articles/srep39956#Sec8\n\n— 完 —\n\n"],["id","obwrpyiajxnx"],["createdAt","2020-02-09T01:53:22.130Z"]]}],["reply",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","tmgTKHABd3n3h-WYriSs"],["user",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["id","_1YnAG8BV0DITCqGm7go"],["name","uienwt"],["avatarUrl",null],["level",18]]}],["type","OPINIONATED"],["text","目前沒有證據顯示鹽水有助於消除新型冠狀病毒。用鹽殺菌的原理是應用在醃漬食物，讓細菌無法生長，但人不可能用高濃度的鹽水來浸泡口罩，因此傳言指稱用淡鹽水漱口是沒有效果的。"],["reference","https://tfc-taiwan.org.tw/articles/2119\n"],["hyperlinks",{"__iterable":"List","data":[{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["title","【錯誤】網傳「鐘院士的防病毒高招：建議各位去醫院或其他公共場合之前用淡鹽水漱一下嚥喉部位，回家後再漱一次...」？"],["url","https://tfc-taiwan.org.tw/articles/2119"],["summary","【錯誤】網傳「鐘院士的防病毒高招：建議各位去醫院或其他公共場合之前用淡鹽水漱一下嚥喉部位，回家後再漱一次...」？\n \n \n\n網傳「鐘院士的防病毒高招：建議各位去醫院或其他公共場合之前用淡鹽水漱一下嚥喉部位，回家後再漱一次...」，經查：\n\n一、中國工程院院士、中國「新型冠狀病毒聯防聯控工作機制科研攻關組」組長鐘南山的團隊指出，此傳言為網路謠言。\n\n二、專家指出，鹽水漱口不能預防新型冠狀病毒。\n\n因此，此傳言為「錯誤」訊息。\n\n背景\n\n社群平台、通訊軟體流傳訊息指出：「鐘院士的防病毒高招：建議各位去醫院或其他公共場合之前用淡鹽水漱一下嚥喉部位，回家後再漱一次...由於病毒或細菌首先通過鼻腔潛伏於咽部，淡鹽水可以在第一時間殺滅它們，從而達到預防感染的目的」？\n\n\n\n圖1：社群平台流傳訊息擷圖\n\n查核\n\n爭議點一、鐘南山是否有發出此警告？\n\n鐘南山是衛生領域的中國工程院院士，日前接任中國「新型冠狀病毒聯防聯控工作機制科研攻關組」的組長，是中國2003年抗SARS的重要專家。鐘南山團隊所在的廣州醫科大學附屬第一醫院官方微博帳號，於2020年1月22日發布闢謠貼文，指出此貼文為網路謠言。\n\n\n\n圖2：鐘南山團隊發布闢謠貼文擷圖\n\n爭議點二、「用鹽水漱口」可以預防武漢肺炎嗎？傳言指稱「由於病毒或細菌首先通過鼻腔潛伏於咽部，淡鹽水可以在第一時間殺滅它們，從而達到預防感染的目的」，是否屬實？\n\n鐘南山團隊所在的廣州醫科大學附屬第一醫院官方微博指出，鹽水漱口有助於清潔口腔和咽喉，但新型冠狀病毒侵犯的是呼吸道，漱口並沒有辦法清潔呼吸道。目前也沒有證據顯示鹽水有助於消除新型冠狀病毒。\n\n查核中心透過新興科技媒體中心，採訪中興大學獸醫病理生物學研究所教授吳弘毅。他表示，用鹽殺菌的原理是應用在醃漬食物，讓細菌無法生長，但人不可能用高濃度的鹽水來清洗鼻腔或咽喉，因此傳言指稱用淡鹽水漱口是沒有效果的。此外，生理食鹽水反而是病毒可以停留比較久的環境。\n\n台灣感染症醫學會理事長、台大醫院小兒部主任黃立民說，病毒很快就會進入細胞，所以去用鹽水清洗鼻腔或咽喉，並沒有任何作用，而且，鹽水也沒有消毒殺菌的作用。\n\n查核中心採訪長庚大學新興病毒感染研究中心主任施信如，她說此種方法沒有科學根據，也沒有辦法達到預防感染的效果。\n\n結論\n\n一、中國工程院院士、中國「新型冠狀病毒聯防聯控工作機制科研攻關組」組長鐘南山的團隊指出，此傳言為網路謠言。\n\n二、專家指出，鹽水漱口不能預防新型冠狀病毒。\n\n因此，此傳言為「錯誤」訊息。\n\n參考資料\n\n廣州醫科大學附屬第一醫院官方微博"],["topImageUrl","https://tfc-taiwan.org.tw/sites/default/files/upload/node/field_blog_images/image1_2.png"],["error",null]]}]}],["createdAt","2020-02-09T03:52:23.478Z"]]}]]}]}],["searchArticles",{"__iterable":"List","data":[]}],["searchReplies",{"__iterable":"List","data":[]}]]}]]},"replyDetail":{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["state",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["isLoading",false],["isAuthLoading",false],["isReplyLoading",false]]}],["data",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["reply",null],["originalReplyConnection",null]]}]]},"auth":{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["state",{"__iterable":"Map","data":[["isLoading",false],["isDialogShown",false]]}],["user",null]]}}

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